Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.45.0-wmf.5 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk 0 7136 63784 36041 2025-06-17T08:08:20Z KiranBOT 3220 removed AMP tracking from URLs ([[:m:User:KiranBOT/AMP|details]]) ([[User talk:Usernamekiran|report error]]) v2.2.7r lm_rs 63784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ariarne Elizabeth Titmus''' OAM (born 7 September 2000) be Australian swimmer. She be de reigning Olympic champion insyd de women's 200-metre den 400-metre freestyle, she win both events for de 2020 Summer Olympics den de latter event for de 2024 Summer Olympics den de world record holder insyd de long course 200-metre freestyle den 400-metre freestyle events. Insyd 2019 den 2020, she compete wey she represent de Cali Condors insyd de International Swimming League. == Background == Insyd 2015, Titmus den ein family, wey dey include poppie Steve Titmus, move from Tasmania to Queensland for better training opportunities.<ref>Shaw, Rob. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150724124416/https://www.examiner.com.au/story/3090536/titmus-on-move/ "Titmus on move"]. ''The Examiner''. Archived from [https://www.examiner.com.au/story/3090536/titmus-on-move/ the original] on 24 July 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2017.</ref> She attend secondary school for St Patrick’s College Launceston<ref>[https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-15/tas-ariarne-titmus-visits-her-former-school/100462578 "Ariarne Titmus visits her former school on Launceston victory lap - ABC News"]. ''amp.abc.net.au''. Retrieved 15 June 2024.</ref> den St Peter’s Lutheran College insyd Brisbane.<ref>[https://leq.lutheran.edu.au/ariarne-titmus-returns-to-her-old-school-of-st-peters-lutheran-college/ "Ariarne Titmus returns to her old school of St Peters Lutheran College"]. ''Lutheran Education Queensland''. Retrieved 15 June 2024.</ref> She first train as swimmer for Launceston Leisure and Aquatic Centre. Dean Boxall be Titmus ein coach, wey formerly coached Stephanie Rice den Leisel Jones.<ref>Pender, Kieran (26 July 2021). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/jul/27/meet-dean-boxall-the-rock-star-swim-coach-whose-olympics-celebration-went-viral "Meet Dean Boxall, the 'rock star' swim coach whose Olympics celebration went viral"]. ''The Guardian''. ISSN [[issn:0261-3077|0261-3077]]. Retrieved 1 August 2024.</ref> == Career == For de 2016 Junior Pan Pacific Swimming Championships, dem hold for August insyd for Hawaii, United States, Titmus win silver medal insyd de 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay, dey split 2:00.13 for de lead-off leg of de relay make she contribute to de final time of 8:05.43, den bronze medal insyd de 400 metre freestyle plus time of 4:09.81, wich na ebe 2.29 seconds behind gold medalist Li Bingjie of China.<ref>Hy-Tek (27 August 2016). [http://www.swmeets.com/Realtime/Jr%20PanPacs/2016/ "Meet Results: 2016 Jr Pan Pacific Swimming Championships"]. ''swmeets.com''. Retrieved 11 November 2022.</ref> Titmus compete insyd de women's 200-metre freestyle event for de 2017 World Aquatics Championships, wey she fini insyd 17th place.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170930154648/http://www.omegatiming.com/File/Download?id=000111010A0201EE01FFFFFFFFFFFF01 "Heats results"]. FINA. Archived from [http://omegatiming.com/File/Download?id=000111010A0201EE01FFFFFFFFFFFF01 the original] on 30 September 2017. Retrieved 25 July 2017.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20181022064850/http://www.fina-budapest2017.com/en/home "2017 World Aquatics Championships > Search via Athletes"]. ''Budapest 2017''. Archived from [https://fina-budapest2017.com/en/home the original] on 22 October 2018. Retrieved 25 July 2017.</ref> For de 2018 Commonwealth Games, Titmus win three gold medals; insyd de 400 metre freestyle, 800 metre freestyle den de 4 x 200-metre freestyle relay. She sanso win silver medal insyd de 200 metre freestyle. For 14 December 2018, Titmus set fresh world record wey she win gold medal insyd de women's short course 400-metre freestyle competition of de 2018 FINA World Swimming Championships plus time of 3:53.92, wey she break de record set by Wang Jianjiahe two months earlier by 0.05 seconds. She win further gold medal insyd de 200 metre freestyle den two bronze medals insyd relay events for dis competition. Na dem select Titmus as one of de 27 swimmers make she represent Australia for de 2019 World Aquatics Championships insyd Gwangju, South Korea. After she fini second for ein heat insyd of de women's 400-metre freestyle, she win de gold medal den break de Oceania record insyd de final plus time of 3:58.76, full second ahead of American swimmer Katie Ledecky.<ref>[https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-07-22/ariane-titmus-wins-gold-over-kate-ledecky-at-world-titles/11330076 "Ariarne Titmus claims gold in 400m freestyle over American swimming great Katie Ledecky"]. ''ABC News''. 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.</ref> Insyd de 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay de Australian team break de world record wey dem set time of 7:41.50 plus Titmus swim de first leg.<ref name=":0">[https://www.fina.org/competitions/95/18th-fina-world-championships-2019/results?disciplines=SW&event=b379a41f-c705-4471-96bd-bde3b1c86299 FINA 4x200m Freestyle relay results]. ''Omega''. 25 July 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2021.</ref> Insyd 2019, na Titmus be member of de inaugural International Swimming League, wey she represent de Cali Condors, wey fini insyd third place insyd de final match insyd Las Vegas, Nevada, insyd December. Titmus win de 400-metre freestyle several times thru out de season, wey dey include de final.<ref>Keith, Braden (21 December 2019). [https://swimswam.com/international-swimming-league-finale-in-las-vegas-day-two-live-recap/ "international-swimming-league-finale-in-las-vegas-day-two-live-recap"]. SwimSwam.</ref> Insyd 2021, Titmus win two gold medals give Australia for de 2020 Summer Olympics insyd Tokyo. She post time of 3:56.69 insyd de 400-metre freestyle final, she edge out world record holder Ledecky by less dan second.<ref>[https://7news.com.au/sport/olympics/shes-done-it-ariarne-titmus-upstages-katie-ledecky-to-win-tokyo-2020-gold-c-3509095 "SHE'S DONE IT! Ariarne Titmus upstages Katie Ledecky to win Tokyo 2020 gold"]. ''7NEWS''. 26 July 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2021.</ref><ref>[https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-26/ariarne-titmus-beats-katie-ledecky-400m-freestyle-olympic-gold/100323238 "Australia's Ariarne Titmus beats Katie Ledecky in 400m final, Emma McKeon takes Tokyo Olympics bronze in 100m butterfly final"]. ''ABC News''. 26 July 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2021.</ref> She post fresh Olympic Record of 1:53.50 insyd de 200-metre freestyle final, she trail behind Hong Kong ein Siobhán Haughey for most of de race then cam home strongly to push einself in front for de last lap top. Titmus earn silver medal insyd de 800-metre freestyle final, dis time she fini 1.26 seconds behind Katie Ledecky.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210802224126/https://olympics.com/tokyo-2020/olympic-games/resOG2020-/pdf/OG2020-/SWM/OG2020-_SWM_C73A1_SWMW400MFR------------FNL-000100--.pdf "800m Freestyle Final results"] (PDF). ''IOC''. 31 July 2021. Archived from [https://olympics.com/tokyo-2020/olympic-games/resOG2020-/pdf/OG2020-/SWM/OG2020-_SWM_C73A1_SWMW400MFR------------FNL-000100--.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2021.</ref> Na Titmus sanso be part of de relay team wey win bronze insyd de 4 × 200 metre women's freestyle relay, she fini behind China den de US.<ref>[https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-29/tokyo-olympics-womens-4x200m-relay-australia/100332392 "Australia finishes day 6 in pool with bronze in women's 4 × 200 m relay final"]. ''ABC News''. 29 July 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021.</ref> For de 2022 Australian Swimming Championships insyd May, Titmus set fresh world record insyd de long course 400-metre freestyle plus time of 3:56.40, wey she break de former record of 3:56.46 set by Katie Ledecky insyd 2016.<ref name=":1">Hanson, Ian (22 May 2022). [https://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/news/australias-ariarne-titmus-terminates-the-400m-freestyle-world-record-in-adelaide-clocking-356-40// "BREAKING: Olympic Champion Ariarne Titmus Terminates the 400m Freestyle World Record In Adelaide Clocking 3:56.40"]. ''Swimming World''. Retrieved 22 May 2022.</ref><ref name=":2">Li, Yanyan (22 May 2022). [https://swimswam.com/ariarne-titmus-finally-breaks-katie-ledeckys-world-record-in-the-400-free/ "Ariarne Titmus Finally Breaks Katie Ledecky's World Record In The 400 Free"]. ''SwimSwam''. Retrieved 22 May 2022.</ref><ref name=":3">OlympicTalk (22 May 2022). [https://olympics.nbcsports.com/2022/05/22/ariarne-titmus-world-record-katie-ledecky-400-freestyle/ "Ariarne Titmus breaks Katie Ledecky world record as coach Dean Boxall erupts again"]. ''NBC Sports''. Retrieved 22 May 2022.</ref> She lost de record to Summer McIntosh insyd 2023,<ref>Gillespie, Kerry (28 March 2023). [https://www.thestar.com/sports/amateur/2023/03/28/torontos-summer-mcintosh-sets-world-record-in-400-metre-freestyle-at-canadian-swimming-trials.html "Toronto's Summer McIntosh sets world record in 400-metre freestyle at Canadian swimming trials"]. ''Toronto Star''. Retrieved 29 March 2023.</ref> before she regain am for de 2023 World Aquatics Championships with time of 3:55.38.<ref>[https://www.omegatiming.com/File/00011600010201EF0104FFFFFFFFFF01.pdf "Women's 400m Freestyle Final Results"] (PDF). ''Omega Timing''. 23 July 2023. Retrieved 23 July 2023.</ref> For de 2024 Australian Swimming Trials insyd June, Titmus set fresh world record insyd de long course 200-metre freestyle plus time of 1:52.23, wey she break de former record of 1:52.85 set by [[Mollie O'Callaghan]] insyd 2023.<ref name=":4">Penland, Spencer (12 June 2024). [https://swimswam.com/ariarne-titmus-shatters-womens-200-fr-world-record-with-152-23-moc-swims-152-48/ "Ariarne Titmus Shatters Women's 200 FR World Record with 1:52.23, MOC Swims 1:52.48"]. ''SwimSwam''. Retrieved 12 June 2024.</ref><ref>[https://liveresults.swimming.org.au/sal/2024Trials/240610F010.htm "Women's 200m Freestyle Final Results"]. swimming.org.au. 10 June 2024. Retrieved 10 June 2024.</ref> For de Paris 2024 Olympics, Titmus win Gold insyd de Women's 400 meters freestyle, wey she finis ahead of Canadian Summer McIntosh den American Katie Ledecky. == Results insyd major championships == {| class="wikitable sortable" !Meet !200 freestyle !400 freestyle !800 freestyle !4 × 50 freestyle !4 × 200 freestyle !4 × 100 medley |- |PACJ 2016 |6th | |5th | | | |- |WC 2017 |17th |4th |14th | | | |- |CG 2018 | | | | | | |- |PAC 2018 | | | | | | |- |SCW 2018 | | |DNS | | |DQ |- |WC 2019 | | | | | | |- |OG 2021 | | | | | | |- |CG 2022 | | | | | | |- |WC 2023 | | | | | | |- |OG 2024 | | | | | | |} == Career best times == === Long course metres (50 m pool) === : ''As of 12 June 2024'' {| class="wikitable" !Event !Time !Meet !Location !Date !Notes |- |50 m freestyle |'''26.13''' |2018 Pan Pacific Championships |Tokyo, Japan |12 August 2018 | |- |100 m freestyle |'''53.68''' |2022 Australian Swimming Championships |Adelaide, Australia |18 May 2022 | |- |200 m freestyle |'''1:52.23''' |2024 Australian Olympic Swimming Trials |Brisbane, Australia |12 June 2024 |'''WR''' |- |400 m freestyle |'''3:55.38''' |2023 World Aquatics Championships |Fukuoka, Japan |23 July 2023 |'''WR''' |- |800 m freestyle |'''8:13.59''' |2022 Commonwealth Games |Birmingham, England |2 August 2022 |'''OC''' |- |1500 m freestyle |'''16:09.87''' |2018 Australian Pan Pacific Championships Trials |Adelaide, Australia |30 June 2018 | |- |400 m individual medley |'''4:46.61''' |2018 Australian Pan Pacific Championships Trials |Adelaide, Australia |1 July 2018 | |} Legend: '''WR''' – World record; '''OC''' – Oceanian record; '''CR''' – Commonwealth record; '''NR''' – Australian record; Dem no set records insyd finals: '''h''' – heat; '''sf''' – semifinal; '''r''' – relay 1st leg; '''rh''' – relay heat 1st leg; '''b''' – B final; '''†''' – en route to final mark; '''tt''' – time trial === Short course metres (25 m pool) === : ''As of 9 December 2021'' {| class="wikitable" !Event !Time !Meet !Location !Date !Notes |- |50 m freestyle |'''26.43''' |2018 World Championships (25 m) |Hangzhou, China |15 December 2018 | |- |100 m freestyle |'''53.32''' |2019 International Swimming League – Final |Las Vegas, United States |20 December 2019 | |- |200 m freestyle |'''1:51.38''' |2018 World Championships (25 m) |Hangzhou, China |11 December 2018 |'''CR''', '''OC''' |- |400 m freestyle |'''3:53.92''' |2018 World Championships (25 m) |Hangzhou, China |14 December 2018 |'''Former WR''' |- |800 m freestyle |'''8:13.41''' |2018 Australian Swimming Championships (25m) |Melbourne, Australia |25 October 2018 | |} Legend: '''WR''' – World record; '''OC''' – Oceanian record; '''CR''' – Commonwealth record; '''NR''' – Australian record; Dem no set records insyd finals: '''h''' – heat; '''sf''' – semifinal; '''r''' – relay 1st leg; '''rh''' – relay heat 1st leg; '''b''' – B final; '''†''' – en route to final mark; '''tt''' – time trial == World records == === Long course metres === {| class="wikitable" !No. !Event !Time !Meet !Location !Date !Status !Ref |- |1 |4x200 m freestyle relay^[a] |'''7:41.50''' |2019 World Aquatic Championships |Gwangju, South Korea |25 July 2019 |Former |<ref name=":0" /> |- |2 |400 m freestyle |'''3:56.40''' |2022 Australian Swimming Championships |Adelaide, Australia |22 May 2022 |Former |<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> |- |3 |4x200 m freestyle relay^[b] |'''7:39.29''' |2022 Commonwealth Games |Birmingham, United Kingdom |31 July 2022 |Former |<ref>[https://swimswam.com/aussies-blast-739-29-for-new-4x200-wr-titmus-152-82-for-fastest-split-all-time/ "Aussies blast 7:39.29 for new 4x200 WR"]. SwimSwam. 31 July 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2022.</ref> |- |4 |400 m freestyle |'''3:55.38''' |2023 World Aquatics Championships |Fukuoka, Japan |23 July 2023 |'''Current''' |<ref>Pender, Kieran (24 July 2023). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2023/jul/23/ariarne-titmus-katie-ledecky-400m-freestyle-world-swimming-championships "Titmus breaks world record to reign over Ledecky and McIntosh in swimming's 'Race of the Century'"]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved 30 July 2023.</ref> |- |5 |4x200 m freestyle relay^[c] |'''7:37.50''' |2023 World Aquatics Championships |Fukuoka, Japan |27 July 2023 |'''Current''' |<ref>Smirnova, Lena (29 July 2023). [https://olympics.com/en/news/world-aquatics-championships-2023-women-4x200-free-relay-australia-result "World Aquatics Championships 2023: Australia women power to gold by smashing own 4x200m freestyle relay world record"]. ''Olympics.com''. Retrieved 30 July 2023.</ref> |- |6 |200 m freestyle |'''1:52.23''' |2024 Australian Swimming Trials |Brisbane, Australia |12 June 2024 |'''Current''' |<ref name=":4" /> |} '''^a''' split 1:54.27 (1st leg); plis Madison Wilson (2nd leg), Brianna Throssell (3rd leg), Emma McKeon (4th leg) '''^b''' split 1:52.82 (4th leg); plus Madison Wilson (1st leg), Kiah Melverton (2nd leg), [[Mollie O'Callaghan]] (3rd leg) '''^c''' split 1:52.41 (4th leg); plus Mollie O'Callaghan (1st leg), Shayna Jack (2nd leg), Brianna Throssell (3rd leg) === Short course metres === {| class="wikitable" !No. !Event !Time !Meet !Location !Date !Status !Ref |- |1 |400 m freestyle |'''3:53.92''' |2018 World Championships (25 m) |Hangzhou, China |14 December 2018 |Former |<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20181214213947/http://omegatiming.com/File/Download?id=000112010C0201EF04FFFFFFFFFFFF01 "Final results"]. 29 July 2018. Archived from [http://omegatiming.com/File/Download?id=000112010C0201EF04FFFFFFFFFFFF01 the original] on 14 December 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2018.</ref> |} == Olympic records == === Long course metres === {| class="wikitable" !No. !Event !Time !Meet !Location !Date !Status !Ref |- |1 |200 m freestyle |'''1:53.50''' |2020 Summer Olympics |Tokyo, Japan |28 July 2021 |'''Current''' |<ref>[https://www.fina.org/competitions/5/olympic-games-tokyo-2020/results?disciplines=SW&event=a6b60dc6-0dca-41df-b447-fcc29c524cba&unit=final "200mFree result"]. FINA. 28 July 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2021.</ref> |} == Awards den honours == * Swimming Australia, Swimmer of de Year: 2019<ref name=":5">Clark, Laine (25 November 2019). [https://www.foxsports.com.au/more-sports/teen-sensation-ariarne-titmus-named-swimming-australias-swimmer-of-the-year/news-story/2606e87a3f425653f6ca2ee03841e3a1 "Teen sensation Ariarne Titmus named Swimming Australia's swimmer of the year"]. ''Fox Sports''. Retrieved 13 February 2022.</ref> * Swimming Australia, Short Course Swimmer of de Year: 2019<ref name=":5" /> * Swimming Australia, Patron's Award: 2019<ref name=":5" /> * ''SwimSwam'', Top 100 (Women's): 2021 (#10),<ref>Ortegon, Karl (16 February 2021). [https://swimswam.com/swimmings-top-100-for-2021-women-10-1/ "SwimSwam's Top 100 For 2021: Women's #10–1"]. ''SwimSwam''. Retrieved 21 January 2022.</ref> 2022 (#3)<ref>Sutherland, James (21 January 2022). [https://swimswam.com/swimswams-top-100-for-2022-womens-10-1/ "SwimSwam's Top 100 For 2022: Women's #10–1"]. ''SwimSwam''. Retrieved 21 January 2022.</ref> * Olympics.com, Top 5 Moments: Swimming at de 2020 Summer Olympics (#1)<ref>[https://olympics.com/en/news/swimming-tokyo-2020-olympic-games-review-watch-highlights "What we learned: Swimming wrap-up from the Tokyo 2020 Olympics"]. ''Olympics.com''. 8 August 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2021.</ref> * Medal of the Order of Australia, 2022<ref>[https://www.gg.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-01/ad22_gazette_-_o_of_a.pdf "Australia Day Honours List"] (PDF). ''The Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia''. 26 January 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2022.</ref> * Nominee for Laureus World Sports Award in Breakthrough of de Year: 2022<ref>Hamann, Michael (2 February 2022). [https://swimswam.com/dressel-ledecky-mckeon-titmus-daley-nominated-for-laureus-awards/ "Dressel, Ledecky, McKeon, Titmus, Daley Nominated For Laureus Awards"]. ''SwimSwam''. Retrieved 2 February 2022.</ref> * Launceston City Council name Aquatic Centre competition pool – Ariarne Titmus Competition Pool.<ref>[https://www.examiner.com.au/story/7599438/aquatic-centres-competition-pool-now-officially-named-after-titmus/ "Aquatic centre's competition pool now officially named after Titmus"]. 29 January 2022.</ref> * Nike commission large mural at de Launceston Aquatic Centre by artist Jos<ref>[https://www.examiner.com.au/story/7562815/nike-and-council-partner-up-for-titmus-recognition-at-aquatic-centre/ "Nike and council partner up for Titmus recognition at aquatic centre"]. 23 December 2021.</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220531090829/https://a.isl.global/swimmer/titmus-ariarne/ Ariarne Titmus] at de International Swimming League (archived) * [https://www.worldaquatics.com/athletes/1020594/wd#main-content Ariarne Titmus] at World Aquatics * [https://www.swimrankings.net/index.php?page=athleteDetail&athleteId=5028596 Ariarne Titmus] at SwimRankings.net * [https://web.archive.org/web/1/https://www.swimming.org.au/athletes/ariarne-titmus Ariarne Titmus] at Swimming Australia (archived) * [https://olympics.com/en/athletes/ariarne-titmus Ariarne Titmus] at Olympics.com * [https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/140687 Ariarne Titmus] at Olympedia * [https://commonwealthgames.com.au/athletes/ariarne-titmus/ Ariarne Titmus] at Commonwealth Games Australia * [https://web.archive.org/web/2022/https://results.gc2018.com/en/swimming/athlete-profile-n6029959-ariarne-titmus.htm Ariarne Titmus] at de Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games (archived) * [https://results.birmingham2022.com/#/athlete-details/50773 Ariarne Titmus] at de Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games [[Category:Human]] [[Category:2000 births]] [[Category:Australian female freestyle swimmers]] [[Category:World Aquatics Championships medalists insyd swimming]] [[Category:World record holders insyd swimming]] [[Category:Recipients of de Medal of the Order of Australia]] [[Category:Olympic swimmers for Australia]] [[Category:Olympic silver medalists for Australia]] [[Category:Olympic bronze medalists for Australia]] [[Category:Olympic gold medalists insyd swimming]] [[Category:Olympic silver medalists insyd swimming]] [[Category:Olympic bronze medalists insyd swimming]] [[Category:Swimmers at de 2020 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2020 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:Commonwealth Games competitors for Australia]] [[Category:Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Australia]] [[Category:Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Australia]] [[Category:Commonwealth Games medallists insyd swimming]] [[Category:Swimmers at de 2018 Commonwealth Games]] [[Category:Swimmers at de 2022 Commonwealth Games]] [[Category:Medallists at de 2018 Commonwealth Games]] [[Category:Medallists at de 2022 Commonwealth Games]] [[Category:Sportspeople wey komot Launceston, Tasmania]] [[Category:Sportswomen wey komot Tasmania]] [[Category:21st-century Australian sportswomen]] [[Category:Swimmers at de 2024 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:Olympic gold medalists for Australia]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2024 Summer Olympics]] 2jw1pu6zaetm9da9zdkewo1ytuk94up 0 7907 63785 57670 2025-06-17T08:09:00Z KiranBOT 3220 removed AMP tracking from URLs ([[:m:User:KiranBOT/AMP|details]]) ([[User talk:Usernamekiran|report error]]) v2.2.7r lm_rs 63785 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:1996_Paralympic_Games_Canadian_Torch_Marathon.jpg|right|thumb|1996 Paralympic Games Torch Marathon Award (July 10, 1996)]] [[File:Prime_Minister_Letter.jpg|thumb|Letter from Prime Minister Jean Chrétien (August 25, 1996)]] [[File:2022_Waterloo_Region_Hall_of_Fame_Induction.jpg|right|thumb|2022 Waterloo Region Hall of Fame Induction - Kitchener, Ontario, Canada]] '''Vivian Berkeley''' (born August 9, 1941) be Canadian two-time World Blind Lawn Bowling Champion,1996 Paralympic Games Silver Medalist den 2002 Commonwealth Games Bronze Medalist. Over ein 21-year decorated career (1994&#x2013;2015), Vivian go accumulate total of 60 medals; wey dey include 22 straight Provincial Gold medals, 21 National Gold medals (16 straight), along plus impressive 17 International medals from 8 countries (2 Gold, 10 Silver, 5 Bronze). Dem accredit Berkeley make she dey help build de sport of lawn bowls give de blind den visually-impaired insyd Canada den abroad. For November 7, 2021, na dem [https://bowlscanada.com/en/lawn-bowling-champion-vivian-berkeley-inducted-into-canadian-disability-hall-of-fame/ Induct] Vivian into de [https://www.cfpdp.com/canadian-disability-hall-of-fame/ Canadian Disability Hall of Fame (CDHF)]. Found by de [https://www.cfpdp.com/ Canadian Foundation for Physically Disabled Persons (CFPDP)], dis public exhibit dey locate insyd Metro Hall insyd downtown Toronto Ontario, wey ebe wer [https://www.cfpdp.com/previous-hall-of-fame-inductees/ honorary plaque] plus ein name den etching of ein portrait dey for display. De [https://steveblackburn.dphoto.com/album/hipgvy Induction Ceremony] take place for October 20, 2022, for de [https://www.fairmont.com/royal-york-toronto/ Fairmont Royal York] insyd downtown Toronto. For April 24, 2022, na dem [https://regionofwaterloomuseums.ca/en/visit/2022-hall-of-fame-inductees.aspx#Vivian-Berkeley induct] Vivian into de [https://web.archive.org/web/20240818100958/https://regionofwaterloomuseums.ca/en/exhibits/region-hall-of-fame.aspx Waterloo Region Hall of Fame], wey dey locate for de second floor of de [https://regionofwaterloomuseums.ca/en/index.aspx Ken Seiling Waterloo Region Museum] insyd Kitchener Ontario. De Induction Ceremony take place for de same location. For April 28, 2023, na dem induct Vivian into de [https://www.olba.ca/ Ontario Lawn Bowls Association] [https://www.olba.ca/hall-of-fame.html Hall of Fame]. De Induction Ceremony take place insyd Oakville Ontario. For June 13, 2023, na dem induct Vivian into de [https://oldtownhallglacebay.ca/ Glace Bay Old Town Hall Museum], wey dey locate insyd ein hometown of Glace Bay Nova Scotia. "As an athlete I feel that year-round physical training and mental preparation are the keys to success. To reach your goals you must be prepared to be persistent and dedicated to your sport. An athlete must be able to accept winning as well as defeat, and meet new challenges head on. In order to succeed in any sport, this philosophy should be applied on a daily basis." - ''Vivian Berkeley'' == Personal life == Dem born am insyd Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, Vivian receive ein primary den secondary schooling for de Halifax School for the Blind, insyd Halifax, Nova Scotia, wer na she win trophy insyd competitive swimming, before she graduate insyd de mid-1950s. Vivian move go Kitchener, Ontario, insyd 1968, wer na she go job insyd de radiology department for Grand River Hospital for eight years, as[https://www.mymajors.com/career/darkroom-technician/skills/ darkroom technician]. After she lef ein job for de hospital, Vivian go cam turn in-classroom teachers aide give de Waterloo Catholic District School Board, two days a week, for 16 years. She sanso deliver de K-W Record newspaper for chaw years wey she take up de hobby of she dey breed budgie birds. Na Berkeley always be very involve within ein community, dey contribute to chaw committees den service groups. Ein main objective, make she improve de safety, mobility, den well-being of de blind den visually-impaired insyd de Waterloo Region. Vivian get husby Richard (of 50 years), two kiddies Laura-Lee den Michael, den granddaughter Samantha. She sanso get guide dog, black Labrador retriever dem name [https://www.flickr.com/photos/guidedogsfortheblind/5405494072 Angora]. Insyd ein spare time Vivian dey enjoy knitting afghans, puzzles, audio books, den dey listen to ein favourite team de [https://www.mlb.com/bluejays Toronto Blue Jays], as she dey "loves Jerry Howarth's work."<ref>Sawkiw, Warren (September 26, 2015). [https://mobile.twitter.com/warrensawkiw/status/647902450456793088 "Tweet"]. ''Twitter''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref> == Lawn Bowls Career == === Non-competitive play (1989&#x2013;1993) === Berkeley ein lawn bowling career span over 25 years, dey begin insyd 1989. For de time na she sanso dey compete insyd Shuffleboard for de provincial level, along plus five-pin den ten-pin bowling. Vivian initially play out of de [https://www.kitchener.ca/en/recreation-and-sports/kitchener-golf.aspx Rockway Golf and Country Club] insyd Kitchener, Ontario, however na dem force ein lawn bowling club make e close for de end of 1996 for de expansion of ein golf course. De year wey dey follow, fresh local lawn bowling club go open ein doors, [http://heritagegreens.ca/ Heritage Greens]. For de first several years, Vivian go just play one night week plus de oda blind den visually-impaired members. Na Berkeley get chaw coaches thru out ein career, all of dem dey play pivotal role insyd make dem help ein achieve success, wey dey include Don Mayne (1989&#x2013;2004), Jean McCron<ref>[https://www.richmondhill.ca/en/things-to-do/sports-hall-of-fame-inductees.aspx "Sports Hall of Fame Inductees"]. ''www.richmondhill.ca''. 2020-10-27. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref><ref>Love, Ishi & (2012-12-19). [http://ishi-in-sn.blogspot.com/2012/12/confidence-and-blind-lawn-bowls.html "Lawn Bowls "Using the Head": Confidence and Blind Lawn Bowls"]. ''Lawn Bowls "Using the Head"''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref> (2005&#x2013;2013), den Betty Mayne (2014&#x2013;2015) (Don ein wifey), to name few. Vivian state dat "I started (lawn) bowls because I enjoy sports and the challenge of competitions." === Competitive career (1994&#x2013;2015) === ==== Provincial ==== {| class="wikitable" |1994&#x2013;2015 |Ontario Blind Bowls Association (OBBA) |1st |- | colspan="2" |'''TOTAL NUMBER OF GOLD MEDALS''' |'''22''' |} ==== National ==== {| class="wikitable" |1994 |[https://canadianblindsports.ca/ Canadian Blind Sports Association (CBSA)] |4th |- |1995&#x2013;1997 |Canadian Blind Sports Association |1st |- |1998 |Canadian Blind Sports Association |3rd |- |1999&#x2013;2006 |Canadian Blind Sports Association |1st |- |2007&#x2013;2015 |Blind Bowls Association of Canada (BBAC)<ref>Allen, Sean (2014-09-09). [https://web.archive.org/web/20210820075207/https://www.toronto.com/community-story/4841316-blind-lawn-bowlers-compete-for-national-points/ "Blind lawn bowlers compete for national points"]. ''Toronto.com''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref><ref>[https://www.therecord.com/sports/waterloo-region/2014/09/23/two-golds-for-blind-bowler.html "Two golds for blind bowler"]. ''therecord.com''. 2014-09-23. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref> |1st |- | colspan="2" |'''TOTAL NUMBER OF GOLD MEDALS''' ''(Singles Competition = 19 / Pairs = 2)'' |'''21''' |} ==== International ==== {| class="wikitable" |1995 |[https://www.paralympic.org/ International Paralympic Committee (IPC)] World Championships |Worthing, England |4th |- |1996 |[https://www.paralympic.org/atlanta-1996 10th Paralympic Games]<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/vivian-berkeley "Vivian Berkeley - Lawn Bowls | Paralympic Athlete Profile"]. ''International Paralympic Committee''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref><ref>[http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/485615520/ "Calgary Herald from Calgary, Alberta, Alberta, Canada on August 23, 1996 · 57"]. ''Newspapers.com''. 23 August 1996. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref> |Atlanta, United States |2nd |- |1997 |6th [https://www.internationalblindbowls.org/ International Blind Bowls Association (IBBA)] Championships |Hamilton, New Zealand |4th |- |1998 |International Paralympic Committee (IPC) World Championships |Germiston, South Africa |2nd |- |1999 |International Tri-AM Mixed Pairs |Paisley, Scotland |2nd |- |2000 |International Lawn Bowls Open |Tel Aviv, Israel |2nd |- |2001 |7th International Blind Bowls Association (IBBA) Championships |Girvan, Scotland |3rd |- |2002 |International Paralympic Committee (IPC) World Championships |Adelaide, Australia |1st |- |2002 |[https://web.archive.org/web/20180407120044/https://thecgf.com/games/manchester-2002 17th Commonwealth Games]<ref>[https://nflbc.tripod.com/theniagarafallslawnbowlsclub/id14.html "Canadian and US Bowls News"]. ''nflbc.tripod.com''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref><ref>Christie, James (5 July 2002). [https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/wrestler-risks-his-back-for-canada/article22396393/ "Wrestler risks his back for Canada - The Globe and Mail"]. ''The Globe and Mail''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref><ref>[http://www.rds.ca/amateurs/articles/des-jeunes-sont-les-fer-de-lance-de-l-%C3%A9quipe-de-boulingrin-pour-les-jeux-du-commonwealth-1.204509/comments-7.45381 "Comments"]. ''RDS.ca'' (insyd French). Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref><ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/sports/lawn-bowls-overview-1.339095 "Lawn Bowls Overview"]. ''CBC Sports''. July 23, 2002.</ref><ref>[https://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/games-results/FKPXGRQNTQRDD23OXTOUFLXT4Q/ "Games results"]. ''NZ Herald''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/commonwealthgames2002/bsp/statistics/events/lawn_bowls_results.stm "BBC SPORT | Commonwealth Games 2002 | Statistics"]. ''news.bbc.co.uk''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210820075211/http://m2002.thecgf.com/results/default.asp?ath=3703 "Results"]. ''m2002.thecgf.com''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210820075206/https://thecgf.com/results/sport/150/1770/bronze "Lawn Bowls Para-Sport Singles Visually Impaired - Women Bronze Medals | Commonwealth Games Federation"]. ''thecgf.com''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref> |Manchester, England |3rd |- |2004 |International Paralympic Committee (IPC) World Championships |Kuala Lumper, Malaysia |3rd |- |2004 |International Paralympic Committee (IPC) World Championships Pairs |Kuala Lumper, Malaysia |3rd |- |2005 |8th International Blind Bowls Association (IBBA) Championships |Johannesburg, South Africa |2nd |- |2006 |International Paralympic Committee (IPC) World Championships Quadram |Edinburgh, Scotland |1st |- |2007 |[https://web.archive.org/web/20210415180955/http://www.interdisabledbowls.org/View/Main.aspx?WebId=117&VisitorNo=138390 International Bowls for the Disabled (IBD)] World Championships |Sydney, Australia |2nd |- |2007 |International Bowls for the Disabled (IBD) World Championships Pairs |Sydney, Australia |3rd |- |2009 |9th International Blind Bowls Association (IBBA) Championships<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210820075208/https://amp.couriermail.com.au/news/lawn-bowls-april-24/news-story/6a8e58ae96e5279189f529f002395b1d "World Blind Championships"]. ''amp.couriermail.com.au''. April 24, 2009. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref> |Melbourne, Australia |2nd |- |2010 |International Lawn Bowls Championships for the Blind (ILBCB) |Tel Aviv, Israel |2nd |- |2010 |International Lawn Bowls Championships for the Blind (ILBCB) Pairs |Tel Aviv, Israel |2nd |- |2011 |International Bowls for the Disabled (IBD) World Championships |Pretoria, South Africa |2nd |- |2013 |10th International Blind Bowls Association (IBBA) Championships |Worthing, England |4th |- | colspan="3" |'''TOTAL NUMBER OF MEDALS''' '''''(2 Gold, 10 Silver, 5 Bronze)''' (Singles Competition = 2 Gold, 8 Silver, 3 Bronze / Pairs = 2 Silver, 2 Bronze)'' |'''17''' |} == Awards den honours == * Paralympic Games Torch Bearer - [https://web.archive.org/web/20241127145910/https://www.cfpdp.com/whynot/ Royal LePage WhyNot Marathon] insyd Kitchener. ''DEM INCLUDE PICTURE'' (1996) * Fire Prevention Ambassador of North America - Dem induct am alongsyd local sports heroes Professional Boxing Champion Fitz Vanderpool den National Softball Champion Karen Snelgrove. ''DEM INCLUDE PICTURE'' (1996) * [https://www.kitchenersports.ca/ Kitchener Sports Association (KSA)] Wall of Fame - Paralympics profile picture for display insyd de Kitchener Memorial Auditorium. ''DEM INCLUDE PICTURE'' (1996) * House of Commons Canada - Dem recognize am plus oda members of de Olympic den Paralympic Summer Games, such as Donovan Bailey den Clara Hughes. ''TRANSCRIPT''<ref>[https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/35-2/house/sitting-78/hansard "Debates (Hansard) No. 78 - October 1, 1996 (35-2) - House of Commons of Canada"]. ''www.ourcommons.ca''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref> (1996) * Letter from Prime Minister, Jean Chretien. "On behalf of all Canadians, I am delighted to offer you my warmest congratulations on your silver medal win at the X Paralympiad." ''DEM INCLUDE PICTURE'' (1996) * She meet Walter Gretzky. "He (Walter) recognized me from a previous meeting and approached me. “Don (Mayne) and I met him in Scotland in 1999 and had dinner with him at his expense. He knew about my lawn bowling” - ''Vivian Berkeley'' (1999) * Chatelaine Presents Who's Who of Canadian Women 1999-2000<ref>Holmes, Gillian (1999-06-01). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=AGpWnv0L61wC&q=vivian+berkeley&pg=PP7 Who's Who of Canadian Women, 1999-2000]''. University of Toronto Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-920966-55-6|978-0-920966-55-6]]</bdi>.</ref> magazine feature (1999) * She represent Canada for de Commonwealth Games as de oldest athlete for age 61<ref>[https://commonwealthsport.ca/team-canada/games/commonwealth-games.html "Previous Commonwealth Games | Commonwealth Sport Canada"]. ''commonwealthsport.ca''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref> (2002) * [https://www.dogguides.com/ Lions Foundation of Canada] - Life Membership Recipient (2006) * [https://athletescan.com/en AthletesCAN] Paralympic Athlete Council - Dem elect am as Interim Member<ref>Wilsie, David (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20210818162755/https://athletescan.com/en/david-wilsie "AthletesCAN Interim Member"]. ''AthletesCAN Blog''.</ref> for meeting insyd Whitehorse, Yukon (2007) * [https://www.internationalblindbowls.org/ International Blind Bowls Association (IBBA)] - Dem elect am to de World Executive (2009) * [https://www.guidedogs.com/ Guide Dogs for the Blind] Alumni photograph of Vivian, ein fresh guide dog [https://www.flickr.com/photos/guidedogsfortheblind/5405492202/in/photostream Angora] den ein puppy raisers. (2010) * Guide Dogs for the Blind Newsletter - Article Vivian wey she wrep about ein previous guide dog Paka<ref>[http://gdb-reflections.blogspot.com/2011/02/?m=1 "Reflections: Remembering the people and dogs of Guide Dogs for the Blind"]. ''gdb-reflections.blogspot.com''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref> (2011) * She compete for de Blind den Visually-Impaired Curling Provincials (2011) * Award Recipient from Heritage Greens Lawn Bowling Club insyd Kitchener. "In recognition for the work she has done for the visually-impaired in lawn bowling." ''Picture Included'' (2011) * [https://www.kitchener.ca/en/council-and-city-administration/athletic-awards.aspx City of Kitchener Athletic Awards] - Award Recipient<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210820075206/https://issuu.com/kitchenercitizen/docs/kitcitizenmar2013v5-1/18 "Kitchener Citizen - East Edition March 2013"]. ''Issuu''. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</ref> (1989-2013) * [https://www.cfpdp.com/canadian-disability-hall-of-fame/ Canadian Disability Hall of Fame (CDHF)] - [https://www.cfpdp.com/previous-hall-of-fame-inductees/ Honorary plaque] plus ein name den etching of ein portrait for display insyd Metro Hall, Toronto, Ontario (2021) == Community Involvement == * Blind Bowls Association of Canada (BBAC) Past-President. Berkeley establish am make e represent den promote de interests of blind den visually-impaired lawn bowlers locally den abroad (2007) * [https://ccbnational.net/ Canadian Council of the Blind (CCB)] Director of Public Relations, Kitchener District Club (1969-1973) * Canadian Council of the Blind (CCB) Presido, Kitchener District Club (1991-2001) * Canadian National Institute for the Blind (CNIB) Volunteer, Kitchener (1992-1997) * [https://www.regionofwaterloo.ca/en/regional-government/grand-river-accessibility-advisory-committee.aspx City of Kitchener Barrier-Free Advisory Committee] Member (1994-2012) * [https://www.kitchener.ca/en/development-and-construction/fire-safety.aspx City of Kitchener Fire Safety Committee] Member (1997) * Lioness Club of Kitchener (2005) * Ontario Lawn Bowls Association of the Blind (OLBAB) President (1997-2001) * [http://kitchenerpioneerlions.org/ Pioneer Lions Club of Kitchener] Past-Presido (2005-2006) * Royal Canadian Legion, [https://web.archive.org/web/20210726215358/http://www.rclbr50.ca/index.aspx Branch 50] Kitchener (2008-2017) * Waterloo Catholic District School Board (WCDSB) Teachers Aid Volunteer (1985-2000) *two days per week * Waterloo Regional Block Parent Program (1987-1999) == References == [[Category:Living people]] <references /> == External links == Wikimedia Commons get media wey relate to '''''[[commons:Category:Vivian_Berkeley|Vivian Berkeley]]'''''. [[Category:Human]] [[Category:1941 births]] [[Category:Paralympic lawn bowls players for Canada]] [[Category:Paralympic silver medalists for Canada]] [[Category:Lawn bowls players at de 1996 Summer Paralympics]] [[Category:Visually impaired category Paralympic competitors]] [[Category:Medalists at de 1996 Summer Paralympics]] [[Category:Paralympic medalists insyd lawn bowls]] [[Category:Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for Canada]] [[Category:Bowls players at de 2002 Commonwealth Games]] [[Category:Commonwealth Games medallists insyd lawn bowls]] [[Category:Canadian Disability Hall of Fame]] [[Category:Medallists at de 2002 Commonwealth Games]] [[Category:Canadian blind people]] pf3iai4r51q5nkyhzzyy10dtd9nez5l 0 15803 63439 63297 2025-06-16T14:27:16Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Arab slave traders en markets */ 63439 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi2">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 4k6kwi4nkawiw70pruy1erlru5zqm0i 63440 63439 2025-06-16T14:35:09Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Arab slave traders en markets */ 63440 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi2">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] s6mcbkfs2cs6zie4tx3as0yqa6r3tmq 63441 63440 2025-06-16T14:37:29Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Arab slave traders en markets */ 63441 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, and North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 3d0votj58mmz58ppzz86ptf9nwwhhw7 63442 63441 2025-06-16T14:41:15Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Arab slave traders en markets */ 63442 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] tg8tt41dotjssbxosyxlc6kiah0z0xd 63444 63442 2025-06-16T15:11:08Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Arab slave traders en markets */ 63444 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }} == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] a34fd5po5mdoh098bo5bh3w96q0cap1 63445 63444 2025-06-16T15:22:59Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Arab slave traders en markets */ 63445 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }} == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] ho37i7tqee834760kkxjs312jfjqfbb 63448 63445 2025-06-16T15:38:37Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Arab slave traders en markets */ 63448 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 83j0igmwztm12l0lphu967uvdyj5wzu 63450 63448 2025-06-16T15:39:50Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Arab slave traders en markets */ 63450 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 16w7p3bwc3dd40s7pc52zagbcw1rt6g 63451 63450 2025-06-16T15:43:38Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add sub-header 'European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets' 63451 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 3a6uw7w9r4tfg31ds80v1dn2bjps2nw 63453 63451 2025-06-16T15:44:48Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets */ 63453 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] jhcrvvn4pzkaa8kd8hujfagbe2ycoeh 63455 63453 2025-06-16T15:47:18Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets */ 63455 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] ny1gnvssrfz3uusvpipjw10bgybrgy6 63458 63455 2025-06-16T15:49:58Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets */ 63458 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] k1q1dhfyvrim0pc3slknv5tck55oekh 63460 63458 2025-06-16T15:53:12Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets */ 63460 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] t49iy828fuk9xkvfbaaaojh8pw7gr3r 63462 63460 2025-06-16T15:55:31Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Atlantic slave trade' 63462 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 1uflfzuo3pwklf822s4vpmflqz1v0ck 63465 63462 2025-06-16T15:57:44Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63465 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] rprraen1z3zwv2nlpkqsdocevaepas0 63467 63465 2025-06-16T16:00:07Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63467 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}}De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 54vjpyag2c9ydp388xbvqd43a0ty8ra 63469 63467 2025-06-16T16:02:23Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63469 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] nq6hk4fiu2i6izztfuiu9410y81q1r6 63485 63469 2025-06-16T16:20:57Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63485 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] do2ff2v183t2qx2vls3xv2c1ju6b3dy 63491 63485 2025-06-16T16:27:05Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63491 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] m2bperagnrr7ap47l15rtxj797zyhc4 63496 63491 2025-06-16T16:29:18Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63496 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus trade routes for 18th century]] == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] brs9un7kuuanu1dois5bt1snnovqate 63509 63496 2025-06-16T16:45:04Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63509 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] ktwcx6xxyvzvdb5m99mopfrgajsg3k2 63514 63509 2025-06-16T16:48:13Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63514 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 3pvny1lcpbx1hgnktpiiqtffx3dr36n 63532 63514 2025-06-16T17:01:06Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63532 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] advn8rpjxlzbyktupsbfvtf6v7dl3yi 63553 63532 2025-06-16T17:19:08Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63553 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 62w523dpk13te39figmfz1bv4w7n23k 63559 63553 2025-06-16T17:22:49Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63559 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|thumb|Slave trade wey dey happen for Senegal River, kingdom of Cayor]] == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] idgxayehr27cu5pg4mmsrqh8ze1xgke 63560 63559 2025-06-16T17:32:50Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63560 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] dxh93orhimhnri9gdzpk5x01onj3pjz 63580 63560 2025-06-16T19:22:46Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63580 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 4d888iig9wfby2grd7sti55fkynzx5f 63583 63580 2025-06-16T19:29:31Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63583 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] r7k8inzoc4qm8wd1vgw9s9k6ps1th8a 63584 63583 2025-06-16T19:36:56Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63584 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] ikeczem9tapda0ahwaslfoljyobnp1v 63586 63584 2025-06-16T19:39:59Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63586 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 6tvy5iynrg2w4g8d3ecdvppm2hp4s18 63594 63586 2025-06-16T19:56:12Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Atlantic slave trade */ 63594 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] a8fvpfnh97zo0pwox8wc9gepykucgso 63595 63594 2025-06-16T19:58:33Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Abolition' 63595 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] ogmdqrs4b5vmo1hcny0ms2k37j6slkb 63597 63595 2025-06-16T19:59:38Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Abolition */ 63597 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] nxkbcl1q67hsckji499054yx0ajawfq 63598 63597 2025-06-16T20:01:35Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header '18th and 19th centuries' 63598 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 5krs7kztyyedzvboetrz5mkblmzzz9s 63611 63598 2025-06-16T20:18:55Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63611 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] mj9baitsbho8a1m077ey5hb4czosdky 63612 63611 2025-06-16T20:28:27Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63612 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] b9xi8i943qurlavz5x798bytj7u9q49 63615 63612 2025-06-16T20:45:18Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63615 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 1vakats14hb6s760es0o815gpf2mxii 63663 63615 2025-06-16T23:14:10Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63663 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] h08wt3tn0dia884kvhg2hl4t8vqtito 63670 63663 2025-06-16T23:23:47Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63670 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] g3rjoif7jy7l7a0zw9ek8reah1b37mb 63675 63670 2025-06-16T23:32:46Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63675 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] su1b58gql9se26xptb3dim3jpgdp2vv 63678 63675 2025-06-16T23:35:11Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63678 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] gci2uhn1mev1glhqd0jrs4kmdggg2y0 63683 63678 2025-06-16T23:37:52Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63683 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] havek43uyxo3r0d7qyzehw9rnakzqk7 63685 63683 2025-06-16T23:42:15Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63685 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]] == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] jtii5zpvebzfpv0f4s37vmwpirtufuv 63690 63685 2025-06-16T23:47:16Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63690 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] oniso1w8zpxutiv77bj2ziopyankcso 63691 63690 2025-06-16T23:49:02Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63691 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] g0rfacdur2f6556fnokpom4cwaap9ww 63693 63691 2025-06-16T23:53:00Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63693 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> E be de main gist for Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference wey happen for 1889-90. For de late 19th century, de Scramble for Africa make dem quickly divide de continent between European powers wey wan control am, en one early but small focus for all de colonial masters na to suppress slavery plus de slave trade. Seymour Drescher dey talk say European people wey wan end slavery, na mainly because of dem money plus imperial aim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 4qx6wvaedc8urcs0hid5oya78e1bsuh 63695 63693 2025-06-16T23:59:56Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 18th en 19th centuries */ 63695 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> E be de main gist for Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference wey happen for 1889-90. For de late 19th century, de Scramble for Africa make dem quickly divide de continent between European powers wey wan control am, en one early but small focus for all de colonial masters na to suppress slavery plus de slave trade. Seymour Drescher dey talk say European people wey wan end slavery, na mainly because of dem money plus imperial aim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> Even though dem dey use slavery as excuse for conquest, colonial masters no dey really care about am, or dem go just allow slavery make e continue. Dis be secof colonial people need local leaders plus deir money matter, wey plenty dey involved for slavery. So, at first, early colonial policies go de try stop slave trade, but dem go still manage de slavery wey dey happen den try weaken de power of de slave masters.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Plus, de early colonial states no get strong control over dem area, so dem no fit cancel tings widely. Dem try make abolition happen more strongly later for de colonial time.<ref name=":52" /> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] qbv6iojijxbhi5f7gl9jadrfk4ic8rj 63734 63695 2025-06-17T06:13:38Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header '20th century till World War II' 63734 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> E be de main gist for Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference wey happen for 1889-90. For de late 19th century, de Scramble for Africa make dem quickly divide de continent between European powers wey wan control am, en one early but small focus for all de colonial masters na to suppress slavery plus de slave trade. Seymour Drescher dey talk say European people wey wan end slavery, na mainly because of dem money plus imperial aim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> Even though dem dey use slavery as excuse for conquest, colonial masters no dey really care about am, or dem go just allow slavery make e continue. Dis be secof colonial people need local leaders plus deir money matter, wey plenty dey involved for slavery. So, at first, early colonial policies go de try stop slave trade, but dem go still manage de slavery wey dey happen den try weaken de power of de slave masters.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Plus, de early colonial states no get strong control over dem area, so dem no fit cancel tings widely. Dem try make abolition happen more strongly later for de colonial time.<ref name=":52" /> ===== 20th century till World War II ===== == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] qv16zd8to179558ycco1osy9p9y2l8o 63737 63734 2025-06-17T06:26:58Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 20th century till World War II */ 63737 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> E be de main gist for Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference wey happen for 1889-90. For de late 19th century, de Scramble for Africa make dem quickly divide de continent between European powers wey wan control am, en one early but small focus for all de colonial masters na to suppress slavery plus de slave trade. Seymour Drescher dey talk say European people wey wan end slavery, na mainly because of dem money plus imperial aim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> Even though dem dey use slavery as excuse for conquest, colonial masters no dey really care about am, or dem go just allow slavery make e continue. Dis be secof colonial people need local leaders plus deir money matter, wey plenty dey involved for slavery. So, at first, early colonial policies go de try stop slave trade, but dem go still manage de slavery wey dey happen den try weaken de power of de slave masters.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Plus, de early colonial states no get strong control over dem area, so dem no fit cancel tings widely. Dem try make abolition happen more strongly later for de colonial time.<ref name=":52" /> ===== 20th century till World War II ===== Plenty tings be de reason slavery slow down den finally dem cancel am for Africa during de colonial time, some of saa reasons be say na dem get colonial policies wey dey talk of cancelling am, economic changes too no be small, plus slaves sef dey resist. During colonial time, de way work change wey wage labour plus cash crops rise, e make slavery dey slowdown fast secof e give slaves new chances . Dem stop slave raiding en wars between African states plus dat one wey make plenty slaves reduce. Slaves go use early colonial laws wey sey dem don stop slavery, dem go waka comot from dem masters but dose laws dey more for control than to really stop am. Dis waka bring more serious efforts to stop slavery from colonial government.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greene |first=Sandra E. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Minority Voices: Abolitionism in West Africa |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=642–661 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1008213 |issn=0144-039X |s2cid=144012357}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-201216">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 1zxgho0x4jkutkg3pyhki9b4fyz1pdg 63741 63737 2025-06-17T06:41:11Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 20th century till World War II */ 63741 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> E be de main gist for Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference wey happen for 1889-90. For de late 19th century, de Scramble for Africa make dem quickly divide de continent between European powers wey wan control am, en one early but small focus for all de colonial masters na to suppress slavery plus de slave trade. Seymour Drescher dey talk say European people wey wan end slavery, na mainly because of dem money plus imperial aim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> Even though dem dey use slavery as excuse for conquest, colonial masters no dey really care about am, or dem go just allow slavery make e continue. Dis be secof colonial people need local leaders plus deir money matter, wey plenty dey involved for slavery. So, at first, early colonial policies go de try stop slave trade, but dem go still manage de slavery wey dey happen den try weaken de power of de slave masters.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Plus, de early colonial states no get strong control over dem area, so dem no fit cancel tings widely. Dem try make abolition happen more strongly later for de colonial time.<ref name=":52" /> ===== 20th century till World War II ===== Plenty tings be de reason slavery slow down den finally dem cancel am for Africa during de colonial time, some of saa reasons be say na dem get colonial policies wey dey talk of cancelling am, economic changes too no be small, plus slaves sef dey resist. During colonial time, de way work change wey wage labour plus cash crops rise, e make slavery dey slowdown fast secof e give slaves new chances . Dem stop slave raiding en wars between African states plus dat one wey make plenty slaves reduce. Slaves go use early colonial laws wey sey dem don stop slavery, dem go waka comot from dem masters but dose laws dey more for control than to really stop am. Dis waka bring more serious efforts to stop slavery from colonial government.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greene |first=Sandra E. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Minority Voices: Abolitionism in West Africa |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=642–661 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1008213 |issn=0144-039X |s2cid=144012357}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-201216">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> After French people don conquer den cancel slave matter, over one million slaves for French West Africa jammed their leg run from dem masters go back home between 1906 den 1911.<ref>Martin Klein, "Slave Descent and Social Status in Sahara and Sudan", in Reconfiguring Slavery: West African Trajectories, ed. Benedetta Rossi (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 29.</ref> For [[:en:Madagascar|Madagascar]] dem don release over 500,000 slaves after French cancel am for 1896<ref>Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. New York: CRC Press, p. 878</ref> Sekof dis pressure, Ethiopia don officially cancel slavery for 1932, de Sokoto Caliphate don also cancel am for 1900, plus de rest of Sahel follow do am for 1911. == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] ie4le1r790nx1k0ot9ig410472lxo5s 63746 63741 2025-06-17T06:48:33Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 20th century till World War II */ 63746 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> E be de main gist for Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference wey happen for 1889-90. For de late 19th century, de Scramble for Africa make dem quickly divide de continent between European powers wey wan control am, en one early but small focus for all de colonial masters na to suppress slavery plus de slave trade. Seymour Drescher dey talk say European people wey wan end slavery, na mainly because of dem money plus imperial aim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> Even though dem dey use slavery as excuse for conquest, colonial masters no dey really care about am, or dem go just allow slavery make e continue. Dis be secof colonial people need local leaders plus deir money matter, wey plenty dey involved for slavery. So, at first, early colonial policies go de try stop slave trade, but dem go still manage de slavery wey dey happen den try weaken de power of de slave masters.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Plus, de early colonial states no get strong control over dem area, so dem no fit cancel tings widely. Dem try make abolition happen more strongly later for de colonial time.<ref name=":52" /> ===== 20th century till World War II ===== Plenty tings be de reason slavery slow down den finally dem cancel am for Africa during de colonial time, some of saa reasons be say na dem get colonial policies wey dey talk of cancelling am, economic changes too no be small, plus slaves sef dey resist. During colonial time, de way work change wey wage labour plus cash crops rise, e make slavery dey slowdown fast secof e give slaves new chances . Dem stop slave raiding en wars between African states plus dat one wey make plenty slaves reduce. Slaves go use early colonial laws wey sey dem don stop slavery, dem go waka comot from dem masters but dose laws dey more for control than to really stop am. Dis waka bring more serious efforts to stop slavery from colonial government.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greene |first=Sandra E. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Minority Voices: Abolitionism in West Africa |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=642–661 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1008213 |issn=0144-039X |s2cid=144012357}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-201216">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> After French people don conquer den cancel slave matter, over one million slaves for French West Africa jammed their leg run from dem masters go back home between 1906 den 1911.<ref>Martin Klein, "Slave Descent and Social Status in Sahara and Sudan", in Reconfiguring Slavery: West African Trajectories, ed. Benedetta Rossi (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 29.</ref> For [[:en:Madagascar|Madagascar]] dem don release over 500,000 slaves after French cancel am for 1896<ref>Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. New York: CRC Press, p. 878</ref> Sekof dis pressure, Ethiopia don officially cancel slavery for 1932, de Sokoto Caliphate don also cancel am for 1900, plus de rest of Sahel follow do am for 1911. After Trans-Atlantic slave trade don end, other roads wey de carry enslave people from Africa don continue till e enter de 20th century. Indian Ocean slave trade, plus Zanzibar slave trade, British don fight dem with plenty anti-slavery agreements wey dem push on Zanzibar Sultan between 1822 and 1909, each one dey limit slave trade wey dey happen between Swahili coast of East Africa plus Arabian Peninsula. For 1867 agreement, dem pressure Zanzibar make dem stop to export slaves go Arabia, plus make dem contain slave trade insyde Sultanate borders, na only between Latitude 9 degrees South of Kilwa plus Latitude 4 degrees South of Lamu.<ref>Mbogoni, L. E. Y. (2013). Aspects of Colonial Tanzania History. Tanzania: Mkuki na Nyota. p. 172</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] fvqq6xwpmnn3uyi10jfdmx8q0qcdtfg 63748 63746 2025-06-17T06:50:40Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 20th century till World War II */ 63748 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> E be de main gist for Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference wey happen for 1889-90. For de late 19th century, de Scramble for Africa make dem quickly divide de continent between European powers wey wan control am, en one early but small focus for all de colonial masters na to suppress slavery plus de slave trade. Seymour Drescher dey talk say European people wey wan end slavery, na mainly because of dem money plus imperial aim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> Even though dem dey use slavery as excuse for conquest, colonial masters no dey really care about am, or dem go just allow slavery make e continue. Dis be secof colonial people need local leaders plus deir money matter, wey plenty dey involved for slavery. So, at first, early colonial policies go de try stop slave trade, but dem go still manage de slavery wey dey happen den try weaken de power of de slave masters.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Plus, de early colonial states no get strong control over dem area, so dem no fit cancel tings widely. Dem try make abolition happen more strongly later for de colonial time.<ref name=":52" /> ===== 20th century till World War II ===== Plenty tings be de reason slavery slow down den finally dem cancel am for Africa during de colonial time, some of saa reasons be say na dem get colonial policies wey dey talk of cancelling am, economic changes too no be small, plus slaves sef dey resist. During colonial time, de way work change wey wage labour plus cash crops rise, e make slavery dey slowdown fast secof e give slaves new chances . Dem stop slave raiding en wars between African states plus dat one wey make plenty slaves reduce. Slaves go use early colonial laws wey sey dem don stop slavery, dem go waka comot from dem masters but dose laws dey more for control than to really stop am. Dis waka bring more serious efforts to stop slavery from colonial government.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greene |first=Sandra E. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Minority Voices: Abolitionism in West Africa |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=642–661 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1008213 |issn=0144-039X |s2cid=144012357}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-201216">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> After French people don conquer den cancel slave matter, over one million slaves for French West Africa jammed their leg run from dem masters go back home between 1906 den 1911.<ref>Martin Klein, "Slave Descent and Social Status in Sahara and Sudan", in Reconfiguring Slavery: West African Trajectories, ed. Benedetta Rossi (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 29.</ref> For [[:en:Madagascar|Madagascar]] dem don release over 500,000 slaves after French cancel am for 1896<ref>Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. New York: CRC Press, p. 878</ref> Sekof dis pressure, Ethiopia don officially cancel slavery for 1932, de Sokoto Caliphate don also cancel am for 1900, plus de rest of Sahel follow do am for 1911. After Trans-Atlantic slave trade don end, other roads wey de carry enslave people from Africa don continue till e enter de 20th century. Indian Ocean slave trade, plus Zanzibar slave trade, British don fight dem with plenty anti-slavery agreements wey dem push on Zanzibar Sultan between 1822 and 1909, each one dey limit slave trade wey dey happen between Swahili coast of East Africa plus Arabian Peninsula. For 1867 agreement, dem pressure Zanzibar make dem stop to export slaves go Arabia, plus make dem contain slave trade insyde Sultanate borders, na only between Latitude 9 degrees South of Kilwa plus Latitude 4 degrees South of Lamu.<ref>Mbogoni, L. E. Y. (2013). Aspects of Colonial Tanzania History. Tanzania: Mkuki na Nyota. p. 172</ref> After 1867, British dem go dey fight slave trade for Indian Ocean but Omani slave dhows wey dey use French colours dey carry slaves go Arabia plus Persian Gulf from East Africa, even reach Mozambique. French people no fit talk anything till 1905, wen Hague International Tribunal tell dem make dem stop French flags for Omani dhows; but small small smuggling of slaves from East Africa go Arabia still dey happen till 1960s.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 25</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] ngm5auicwfb5ovh3y0a580dsiv1b5vb 63764 63748 2025-06-17T06:56:55Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 20th century till World War II */ 63764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> E be de main gist for Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference wey happen for 1889-90. For de late 19th century, de Scramble for Africa make dem quickly divide de continent between European powers wey wan control am, en one early but small focus for all de colonial masters na to suppress slavery plus de slave trade. Seymour Drescher dey talk say European people wey wan end slavery, na mainly because of dem money plus imperial aim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> Even though dem dey use slavery as excuse for conquest, colonial masters no dey really care about am, or dem go just allow slavery make e continue. Dis be secof colonial people need local leaders plus deir money matter, wey plenty dey involved for slavery. So, at first, early colonial policies go de try stop slave trade, but dem go still manage de slavery wey dey happen den try weaken de power of de slave masters.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Plus, de early colonial states no get strong control over dem area, so dem no fit cancel tings widely. Dem try make abolition happen more strongly later for de colonial time.<ref name=":52" /> ===== 20th century till World War II ===== Plenty tings be de reason slavery slow down den finally dem cancel am for Africa during de colonial time, some of saa reasons be say na dem get colonial policies wey dey talk of cancelling am, economic changes too no be small, plus slaves sef dey resist. During colonial time, de way work change wey wage labour plus cash crops rise, e make slavery dey slowdown fast secof e give slaves new chances . Dem stop slave raiding en wars between African states plus dat one wey make plenty slaves reduce. Slaves go use early colonial laws wey sey dem don stop slavery, dem go waka comot from dem masters but dose laws dey more for control than to really stop am. Dis waka bring more serious efforts to stop slavery from colonial government.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greene |first=Sandra E. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Minority Voices: Abolitionism in West Africa |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=642–661 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1008213 |issn=0144-039X |s2cid=144012357}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-201216">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> After French people don conquer den cancel slave matter, over one million slaves for French West Africa jammed their leg run from dem masters go back home between 1906 den 1911.<ref>Martin Klein, "Slave Descent and Social Status in Sahara and Sudan", in Reconfiguring Slavery: West African Trajectories, ed. Benedetta Rossi (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 29.</ref> For [[:en:Madagascar|Madagascar]] dem don release over 500,000 slaves after French cancel am for 1896<ref>Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. New York: CRC Press, p. 878</ref> Sekof dis pressure, Ethiopia don officially cancel slavery for 1932, de Sokoto Caliphate don also cancel am for 1900, plus de rest of Sahel follow do am for 1911. After Trans-Atlantic slave trade don end, other roads wey de carry enslave people from Africa don continue till e enter de 20th century. Indian Ocean slave trade, plus Zanzibar slave trade, British don fight dem with plenty anti-slavery agreements wey dem push on Zanzibar Sultan between 1822 and 1909, each one dey limit slave trade wey dey happen between Swahili coast of East Africa plus Arabian Peninsula. For 1867 agreement, dem pressure Zanzibar make dem stop to export slaves go Arabia, plus make dem contain slave trade insyde Sultanate borders, na only between Latitude 9 degrees South of Kilwa plus Latitude 4 degrees South of Lamu.<ref>Mbogoni, L. E. Y. (2013). Aspects of Colonial Tanzania History. Tanzania: Mkuki na Nyota. p. 172</ref> After 1867, British dem go dey fight slave trade for Indian Ocean but Omani slave dhows wey dey use French colours dey carry slaves go Arabia plus Persian Gulf from East Africa, even reach Mozambique. French people no fit talk anything till 1905, wen Hague International Tribunal tell dem make dem stop French flags for Omani dhows; but small small smuggling of slaves from East Africa go Arabia still dey happen till 1960s.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 25</ref> For 20th century, na de League of Nations don take slavery matter serious, dem set up committees wey go investigate den cancel slavery plus slave trade for de whole world. De Temporary Slavery Commission (TSC) run em global investigation from 1924–1926, dem file report, plus dem create de 1926 Slavery Convention wey go make sure say dem fit cancel slavery plus slave trade fast fast.<ref>Miers, Suzanne (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press, pp. 100–121</ref> For 1932, de League create Committee of Experts wey go look insyde de result plus how dem fit enforce de 1926 Slavery Convention. Dis one bring new international investigation under de first permanent slavery committee, de Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery (ACE).<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 216</ref> Dis two investigations talk say, African slaves dey move from Africa go Muslim Arab world, where dem still dey accept chattel slavery. == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] 0up0igewbqu5cwrvhtgqd6mux2pk5bb 63778 63764 2025-06-17T07:00:36Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 20th century till World War II */ 63778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> E be de main gist for Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference wey happen for 1889-90. For de late 19th century, de Scramble for Africa make dem quickly divide de continent between European powers wey wan control am, en one early but small focus for all de colonial masters na to suppress slavery plus de slave trade. Seymour Drescher dey talk say European people wey wan end slavery, na mainly because of dem money plus imperial aim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> Even though dem dey use slavery as excuse for conquest, colonial masters no dey really care about am, or dem go just allow slavery make e continue. Dis be secof colonial people need local leaders plus deir money matter, wey plenty dey involved for slavery. So, at first, early colonial policies go de try stop slave trade, but dem go still manage de slavery wey dey happen den try weaken de power of de slave masters.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Plus, de early colonial states no get strong control over dem area, so dem no fit cancel tings widely. Dem try make abolition happen more strongly later for de colonial time.<ref name=":52" /> ===== 20th century till World War II ===== Plenty tings be de reason slavery slow down den finally dem cancel am for Africa during de colonial time, some of saa reasons be say na dem get colonial policies wey dey talk of cancelling am, economic changes too no be small, plus slaves sef dey resist. During colonial time, de way work change wey wage labour plus cash crops rise, e make slavery dey slowdown fast secof e give slaves new chances . Dem stop slave raiding en wars between African states plus dat one wey make plenty slaves reduce. Slaves go use early colonial laws wey sey dem don stop slavery, dem go waka comot from dem masters but dose laws dey more for control than to really stop am. Dis waka bring more serious efforts to stop slavery from colonial government.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greene |first=Sandra E. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Minority Voices: Abolitionism in West Africa |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=642–661 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1008213 |issn=0144-039X |s2cid=144012357}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-201216">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> After French people don conquer den cancel slave matter, over one million slaves for French West Africa jammed their leg run from dem masters go back home between 1906 den 1911.<ref>Martin Klein, "Slave Descent and Social Status in Sahara and Sudan", in Reconfiguring Slavery: West African Trajectories, ed. Benedetta Rossi (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 29.</ref> For [[:en:Madagascar|Madagascar]] dem don release over 500,000 slaves after French cancel am for 1896<ref>Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. New York: CRC Press, p. 878</ref> Sekof dis pressure, Ethiopia don officially cancel slavery for 1932, de Sokoto Caliphate don also cancel am for 1900, plus de rest of Sahel follow do am for 1911. After Trans-Atlantic slave trade don end, other roads wey de carry enslave people from Africa don continue till e enter de 20th century. Indian Ocean slave trade, plus Zanzibar slave trade, British don fight dem with plenty anti-slavery agreements wey dem push on Zanzibar Sultan between 1822 and 1909, each one dey limit slave trade wey dey happen between Swahili coast of East Africa plus Arabian Peninsula. For 1867 agreement, dem pressure Zanzibar make dem stop to export slaves go Arabia, plus make dem contain slave trade insyde Sultanate borders, na only between Latitude 9 degrees South of Kilwa plus Latitude 4 degrees South of Lamu.<ref>Mbogoni, L. E. Y. (2013). Aspects of Colonial Tanzania History. Tanzania: Mkuki na Nyota. p. 172</ref> After 1867, British dem go dey fight slave trade for Indian Ocean but Omani slave dhows wey dey use French colours dey carry slaves go Arabia plus Persian Gulf from East Africa, even reach Mozambique. French people no fit talk anything till 1905, wen Hague International Tribunal tell dem make dem stop French flags for Omani dhows; but small small smuggling of slaves from East Africa go Arabia still dey happen till 1960s.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 25</ref> For 20th century, na de League of Nations don take slavery matter serious, dem set up committees wey go investigate den cancel slavery plus slave trade for de whole world. De Temporary Slavery Commission (TSC) run em global investigation from 1924–1926, dem file report, plus dem create de 1926 Slavery Convention wey go make sure say dem fit cancel slavery plus slave trade fast fast.<ref>Miers, Suzanne (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press, pp. 100–121</ref> For 1932, de League create Committee of Experts wey go look insyde de result plus how dem fit enforce de 1926 Slavery Convention. Dis one bring new international investigation under de first permanent slavery committee, de Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery (ACE).<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 216</ref> Dis two investigations talk say, African slaves dey move from Africa go Muslim Arab world, where dem still dey accept chattel slavery. De Trans-Saharan slave trade dem try fight am, but de colonial masters wey dey control de Sahara region since late 19th century no really get power for de place like dat. De French, Spanish, Italian British dem dey yan say dem dey fight de old slave trade wey dey carry Africans go Arab North Africa plus Middle East. But truth be say, de colonial masters from de West no fit control de Sahara area well well, so dem no really stop de slave trade, but e dey small small reduce am. == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] jz5t0wvsufsf6sce28mbpogf2wlcadt 63779 63778 2025-06-17T07:09:47Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* 20th century till World War II */ 63779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Burning of a village in Africa den capture of ein inhabitants (February 1859)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=12|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]] Na Slavery historically be widespread insyd [[Africa]]. Na systems of servitude den slavery once be commonplace insyd parts of Africa, as na dem be in much of de rest of de ancient den medieval world.<ref>Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", ''Slavery and Slaving in African History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.&nbsp;38, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003]], [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-139-03499-9|978-1-139-03499-9]]</bdi>, <q>For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.</q></ref> Wen de trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, den [[Atlantic slave trade]] (wich na dem start insyd de 16th century) begin, na chaw of de pre-existing local African slave systems begin dey supply captives for slave markets outsyd Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-20122">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Sparks process">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Slavery insyd contemporary Africa still dey exist insyd sam regions despite e be illegal. Insyd de relevant literature African slavery be categorized into indigenous slavery den export slavery, wey dey depend on whether anaa na dem no trade slaves beyond de continent.<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref> Na dem practise slavery insyd historical Africa insyd chaw different forms: na dem dey practise all debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, den enslavement of criminals insyd various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2012|location=New York|page=18}}</ref> Na slavery for domestic den court purposes be widespread thru out Africa. Plantation slavery sanso occur, primarily on de eastern coast of Africa den insyd parts of West Africa. Na de importance of domestic plantation slavery increase during de 19th century, secof de abolition of de Atlantic slave trade. Na chawAfrican states dependent on de international slave trade reorient dema economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref name="Austin">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> == Forms == Plenty kind slavery and servitude don dey exist for African history, dem shape am with wetin our people dey do before plus Roman slavery wahala (and how Christian people later take see am), Islamic slavery way come from Muslim slave trade, plus e finally join Atlantic slave trade matter.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery be one kind matter wey dey run for Africa society for long time, but how e be fit change.<ref name="Lovejoy-20123">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Ibn Battuta, wey visit Mali kingdom for 14th century, talk say people for there dey compete who go get plenty slaves and servants, and dem even give am one slave pikin as 'hospitality gift'.<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref> For sub-Saharan Africa, di slave relations dem dey very complex, with some rights and freedoms wey dem dey give to people wey dem hold for slavery, plus some wahala wey dey restrict sale and how dem go treat dem by dem masters.<ref name="Fage">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Some communities get levels for di different kind of slaves: like, dem dey distinguish between those wey don born enter slavery and those wey dem catch through war.<ref name="Rodney">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slavery for Africa no be joke, e dey connect with how pipo sabi each other. For many African towns, where land no dey belong to anybody, if person wan climb status, dem go fit enslave am to boost im influence and link up with more pipo.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Dis one make slaves dey permanent for the master family, and even the pikin wey dem born from slaves fit join the big family ties well well.<ref name="Lovejoy-20124">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Pikin wey dey born for slave family fit join the master family group, e fit even become big person for society, sometimes e fit reach chief level too.<ref name="Rodney2">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But yawa still dey, e go still get bad name and proper line between the slave pipo wey dey the family and the master side.<ref name="Snell2">{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|location=New York|pages=4–21|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> ===== Chattel slavery ===== Chattel slavery be like when dem fit treat slave as if dem be dey own property. So, di owner fit sell, trade, or treat di slave like any other thing wey e get for him possession, and di pikin wey come from di slave too dey belong to di master.<ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> Plenty proof dey show say chattel slavery don dey happen for Nile River valley, for Sahel and North Africa too. But e no clear how far chattel slavery dey go for di rest of di continent before dem write am down for Arab or European traders.<ref name="Alexander2">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref><ref name="Gaspar">{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1998|location=Bloomington}}</ref> ===== Domestic service ===== Plenty slave relationship for Africa dey center around domestic slavery, wey slaves go dey work for their master house, but dem go still get small freedoms. Dem domestic slaves fit be like part of the master family, and dem no go fit sell dem go another person unless wahala plenty. Dem slaves fit chop the money wey dem make from their work (whether land or products), and some fit marry and pass the land give their pikin for plenty cases.<ref name="Rodney3">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It?|url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|publisher=Anti-Slavery International}}</ref> ===== Pawnship ===== Pawnship, or debt bondage slavery, dey use people as collateral make dem fit pay back debt. Di debtor or im paddy (normally pikin) go do di work. For West Africa, pawnship na normal way to secure loan. E mean say person or im family member go serve other person wey dey give credit. Pawnship dey different from slavery for some ways, like dem get specific work wey person go do, plus di family go fit protect dem from being sold into slavery. Before European waka come, pawnship dey happen plenty for West Africa among Akan people, Ewe, Ga, Yoruba, and Edo people. E still dey happen small-small among Efik, Igbo, Ijaw, and Fon people too.<ref name="Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |last2=Richardson |first2=David |year=2001 |title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=67–89 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787 |s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy|location=Trenton, NJ|editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref> ===== Military slavery ===== [[File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victims_for_sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|Slaves for sacrifice at the [[:en:Annual_Customs_of_Dahomey|Annual Customs of Dahomey]] – from ''[[:en:Archibald_Dalzel|The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa]]'', 1793]] Military slavery be when dem go collect and train soldiers wey dem force join, and e go still be military slaves even after dem finish work.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dem slave soldier groups go dey under one Patron, fit be government head or independent warlord wey go send him boys go fight for money and to chase him own political gains.<ref name="Johnson2">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Dis one dey very important for Nile valley (mostly for Sudan and Uganda), wey slave soldiers dey organize by different Islamic leaders,<ref name="Johnson3">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> plus di war chiefs wey dey West Africa.<ref name="Wylie">{{cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Kenneth C. |year=1969 |title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531 |jstor=179516}}</ref> Di military units for Sudan start for 1800s as dem dey carry out big-time military raiding for di area wey we call Sudan and South Sudan now.<ref name="Johnson4">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> ===== Slaves for sacrifice ===== Human sacrifice dey happen for West Africa grind till 19th century. E no clear for ground before white man land, but for dem societies wey dey do am, na slaves be the main victims.<ref name="Lovejoy-20125">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> The Annual Customs of Dahomey na one bad case wey plenty slaves go dey sacrificed, sometimes 500 prisoners go follow am. Sacrifices dey happen all long West Africa coast and even inside. Dem dey do sacrifices for Benin Empire, wey dey current southern Nigeria, and for some small independent states for that side too. For Ashanti Region, human sacrifice dey mix with death penalty sometimes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Clifford. |date=1988 |title=Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219449 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=433–441 |doi=10.2307/219449 |jstor=219449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Human Sacrifice|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice|date=26 August 2019}}</ref> ===== Local slave trade ===== [[File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_slave_women_in_Luanda.jpg|thumb|Young slave women in [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], {{circa|1897}}]] Plenty nations like Bono State, Ashanti wey dey Ghana now and Yoruba wey dey Nigeria now dey do slave-trading.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2 March 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref> Groups like Imbangala for Angola and Nyamwezi for Tanzania dey act as middlemen or roaming gangs, dey fight African states to catch people for export as slaves. Historians like John Thornton and Linda Heywood from Boston University don estimate say, out of di Africans wey dem capture and sell as slaves go New World for Atlantic slave trade, about 90% na fellow Africans wey sell dem to European traders.<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Henry Louis Gates, di Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies talk say, 'if no be for complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders, di slave trade to di New World no go fit happen, at least no go be dis scale wey e happen.'<ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|first=Henry Louis|last=Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|work=The New York Times|date=23 April 2010|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162439/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Bubi people dey come from slaves wey run away from different tribes wey plenty ancient West-central African groups get. == Practices by region == [[File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Ranavalona_I_of_Madagascar_engraving.jpg|thumb|Malagasy slaves ([[:en:Andevo|Andevo]]) carrying Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]] of Madagascar]] Like plenty other places for di world, slavery and forced work dey happen inside plenty kingdoms and societies for Africa for plenty years.<ref name="Manning-1983">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref><ref name="Fage2">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> Ugo Kwokeji talk say di early European reports on slavery for Africa wey happen for di 1600s no dey reliable, because dem mix plenty kinds of servitude with chattel slavery.<ref name="Nwokeji">{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|year=2011|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|pages=81–110|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820}}</ref> Di best proof of slave waka for Africa dey come from di big kingdoms, especially for di coast, and e get small proof say widespread slavery dey for stateless societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-20126">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Fage3">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref><ref name="Rodney4">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> Slave trade no be di main thing, e dey follow other trade matter; but e get proof say dem dey use one trans-Saharan slave route since Roman time wey still dey persist after Roman Empire fall.<ref name="Rodney5">{{cite journal |last=Rodney |first=Walter |year=1966 |title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514 |jstor=180112 |s2cid=162649628}}</ref> But di way family connection and rights wey dem dey give slaves (except dem wey dem carry come from war) fit limit di level of slave trade before trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trade start.<ref name="Fage4">{{cite journal |last=Fage |first=J.D. |year=1969 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=393–404 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343 |s2cid=162902339}}</ref> ===== North Africa ===== [[File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_Market,_Mono_version.jpg|thumb|Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt. Relief from de [[:en:Tomb_of_Horemheb_in_Saqqara|tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gordan-Rastelli|first=Lucy|date=2007|title=The Egyptian Collection of Bologna, Italy|pages=50-64|magazine=[[Kmt (magazine)|Kmt]]|volume=18|issue=4|location=Weaverville, North Carolina|publisher=KMT Communications|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Geoffrey T.|url=|title=The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, volume 1|date=1989|publisher=[[Egypt Exploration Society]]|isbn=|location=London|pp=79-82|author-link=Geoffrey Thorndike Martin}}</ref>]] [[File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg|thumb|Release of de Christian slaves by payment of ransom by Catholic monks for [[:en:Algiers|Algiers]] in 1661]] Slavery for northern Africa dey go back to ancient Egypt long time. Di New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) carry plenty slaves as prisoners of war come up di Nile valley and use dem for work inside house and supervised jobs.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Daniel C.|last=Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) dey use land and water routes to bring slaves come.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Dorothy J.|last=Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref> Chattel slavery dey happen plenty for North Africa, whether na under Ancient Carthage (around 814 BC – 146 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David M.|title=Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.{{nbsp}}800-146 BC|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=13. Punic Carthage|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0014|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25688/chapter/193166994}}</ref> or later when Roman Empire dey control am (145 BC – around 430 AD) and Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). Dem get slave trade wey dey carry Saharans go North Africa through desert, wey dey happen during Roman time, as dem still fit show am with documents for Nile Valley say dem dey regulate am with treaty.<ref name="Alexander3">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> As Roman republic dey expand, dem dey make defeated enemies slaves, and di conquests for Africa no be exception. For example, Orosius talk say Rome carry 27,000 people from North Africa make dem slaves for 256 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Keith|last=Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> Piracy become big source of slaves for Roman Empire, and for 5th century AD, pirates dey raid coastal North African villages, carry people wey dem catch go enslave.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Walter|last=Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor1-first=K.|editor1-last=Bradley|editor2-first=P.|editor2-last=Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref> Chattel slavery still dey happen after Roman Empire fall for di Christian areas wey dey there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Alan |date=1980 |title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/01440398008574806 |issn=0144-039X}}</ref> After dem Islamic trade start for Sahara,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aden|first1=John Akare|title=Legacies of the Past|last2=Hanson|first2=John H.|chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref> di practice continue, and na im make di slave matter spread go major places like Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.<ref name="Lovejoy-20127">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Di medieval slave trade for Europe na mainly for East and South: Christian Byzantine Empire and di Muslim World na di places dem dey send slaves go, while Central and Eastern Europe dey supply plenty slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey > The international slave trade|encyclopedia=Britannica.com}}</ref> Di slave trade for medieval Europe na Christians and Jews dey run am together. Early early for di medieval time, Jews get almost all di trade control between Islamic and Christian countries, but as we reach di thirteenth century, dat one no dey apply for di slave trade again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4570-commerce#anchor7|accessdate=18 July 2023|publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_slavery_in_Barbary_(1859).jpg|thumb|[[:en:Christians|Christian]] slavery in [[:en:Barbary_Coast|Barbary]]]] Di Mamluks na slave soldiers wey convert to Islam and serve di Muslim caliphs and di Ayyubid Sultans for di Middle Ages. Di first Mamluks serve di Abbasid caliphs for 9th century Baghdad. As time go, dem become powerful military group, and plenty times dem take power wey be dem own, like when dem dey rule Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250, Egypt na di Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk people wey dey rule am. White people wey be slaves from Caucasus join di army dey form elite troops, later revolting for Egypt create di Burgi dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)|url=http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0075_popup11.htm|publisher=Sunnahonline.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|completely unfamiliar with this source|date=March 2023}} According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by [[:en:Barbary_pirates|Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves to [[:en:North_Africa|North Africa]] and the [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|date=December 2003|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0333719664|location=[[London]]|page=45|access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Grabmeier">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:{{blockquote|"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}}Davis' figures dey cause quarrela for history class, like David Earle talk. E warn say true gist of European slaves dey confuse because dem corsairs dey carry non-Christian whites from east Europe plus black people from West Africa too. Plus, the number of slaves wey dem dey trade mad, dem go just dey guesstimate plenty, dey use big years take calculate for whole centuries or even thousands of years. So, year-to-year e dey scatter well well, especially for 18th and 19th centuries, as slaves wey dem dey import no dey consistent. Before 1840s, records no dey tight at all.{{citation needed span|text=Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records.|date=February 2023}} Middle East guy wey sabi, John Wright, dey warn say the figures wey dem dey use now mostly dey based on wetin people fit observe from back.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref> [[File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christelijke_gevangenen_worden_op_een_plein_te_Algiers_als_slaaf_verkocht,_Jan_Luyken,_1684.jpg|thumb|Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers, [[:en:Ottoman_Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]], 1684]] Dis observation wey dem do for late 1500s and early 1600s show say around 35,000 European Christian slaves dey for Barbary Coast, wey include Tripoli, Tunis, but e plenty for Algiers. Most of dem na sailors wey dem take with their ships, but some be fishermen and coastal people. Overall, most of di captives come from places wey dey near Africa, especially Spain and Italy.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 February 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> De coastal villages and towns for Italy, Portugal, Spain, plus dem Mediterranean islands dey fall victim to pirates plenty times, an long area for Italian and Spanish coasts don almost empty because people don vex waka go. After 1600, di Barbary pirates go fit carry dem waka enter Atlantic, even reach Iceland. Di most famous corsairs na Ottoman Barbarossa (wey dem dey call Redbeard), plus im elder brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (dem dey call am Dragut for di West), Kurtoğlu (wey dem dey call Curtogoli for di West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, and Koca Murat Reis.<ref name="Grabmeier2">{{cite web|last=Grabmeier|first=Jeff|date=8 March 2004|title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 May 2015|website=researchnews.osu.edu|publisher=OSU News Research Archive|location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> For 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa carry Ischia, take 4,000 people prisoner, and send about 9,000 Lipari guys go slavery, almost everybody dey there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php|title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands|newspaper=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> For 1551, Dragut enslave all the people for Maltese island Gozo, like 5,000 to 6,000, send dem go Libya. When pirates attack Vieste for southern Italy for 1554, dem carry 7,000 slaves. For 1555, Turgut Reis waka go Corsica, scatter Bastia, take 6,000 prisoners. For 1558, Barbary corsairs capture town Ciutadella, destroy am, kill people wey dey there, and carry 3,000 survivors go Istanbul as slaves. For 1563, Turgut Reis land for Granada province, Spain, and capture coastal settlements like Almuñécar, plus 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates dey attack Balearic islands plenty, make dem build coastal watchtowers and strong churches. The wahala hard so much wey Formentera no get people again.<ref>Davis, Robert, ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''. {{ISBN|978-1403945518}}</ref> [[File:Arabslavers.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg|left|thumb|Black [[:en:Zanj|Zanjs]] captured in a [[:en:Slave_raid|slave raid]] being marched to a slave market in the Arab world]] Early modern sources dey plenty with stories of the wahala wey Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs dey face:{{blockquote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh....<ref>Morgan, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208022614/http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 |date=8 December 2013 }}.</ref>}}For 1798, dem Tunisians come attack di islet wey dey near Sardinia, and dem carry over 900 people go as slaves. Sahrawi-Moorish people for Northwest Africa dey live like say dem get plenty tribal groups wey fit no mix. Di Hassane warrior tribe dem dey rule and collect tribute wey dem call horma from di lower Berber people wey be znaga. Under dem, you go see di Haratin people, wey be black population wey dem dey treat as servants.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html|work=CNN|title=Slavery's last stand}}</ref> Dem wey be enslave for Sub-Saharan Africa, dem dey carry dem go cross North Africa enter Arabia make dem do farm work, because dem fit survive malaria wey plenty for Arabia and North Africa when dem dey start the slavery. Sub-Saharan Africans sabi endure di malaria-infested area wey dem go, dat be why North Africans no dey carry dem go, even though dem dey close to Arabia and di places wey dey around am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |date=1 January 2018 |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3}}</ref> ===== Horn of Africa ===== [[File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg|left|thumb|A "servant-slave" woman in [[:en:Mogadishu|Mogadishu]] (1882–1883)]] [[File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_in_Ethiopia_-_19th_century.jpg|left|thumb|Slaves in [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], 19th century]] For Horn of Africa, di Christian kings for Ethiopian Empire dey catch slaves mostly from di pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo people wey dey for dia west border, or from new land dem don take back or colonize.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Edmond J|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036800537|title=Revolutionary Ethiopia: from empire to people's republic|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=|location=Bloomington|page=160|oclc=1036800537|author-link=}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref> Di Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, like di Adal Sultanate wey be for di medieval time, dey use dia ports to trade Zanj (Bantu) slaves wey dem catch from di bush.<ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239}}</ref> Slavery wey dem dey do for Ethiopia na mostly for house, and e be women wey dem dey carry go far pass men; dis one self dey happen for plenty parts of Africa. Women dey go across Sahara, Middle East, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean pass men.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Women and Slavery|date=2019}}</ref> Dem wey dem enslave dey serve for their master or mistress house, but them no dey do much productive work. Dem dey regard the enslaved as second-class family members for their owners side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> The first time wey dem try stop slavery for Ethiopia na Emperor Tewodros II (1855–68),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tewodros II|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html|publisher=Infoplease.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2023}} but e no be until 1923 wey dem officially stop di slave trade when Ethiopia join League of Nations.<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref> Anti-Slavery Society talk say over 2 million slaves dey for di early 1930s, from population wey fit be between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> Slavery dey happen for Ethiopia till Italian people come invade for October 1935, when dem waka come remove am by order of dem soldiers wey occupy the place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Abdussamad H. |year=1999 |title=Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=433–446 |doi=10.1017/S0021853799007458 |jstor=183622 |s2cid=161799739}}</ref> After World War II, as Western Allies pressure dem, Ethiopia officially say no to slavery and anybody wey no fit work free after dem take back their independence for 1942.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref> For 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie come make one announcement wey ban slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023053133/http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html|archive-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|geocities needs a serious look|date=March 2023}} For Somali area, dem dey buy slaves for slave market just to work for plantation.<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> About law matter, na Sultans and local big men dey set how dem go treat Bantu slaves. Sometimes, dis plantation slaves go fit chop freedom through escape, emancipation, or dem fit pay ransom.<ref name="USRCLS2">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref> ===== Central Africa ===== {{See also|Atrocities in the Congo Free State|Cannibalism in Africa#Congo Basin}} [[File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png|thumb|A slave market insyde [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], {{circa|1876}}]] [[File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_slave,_in_Cameroon_(IMP-DEFAP_CMCFGB-CP010_2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c.{{nbsp}}1911/1915, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[:en:Kingdom_of_Bamum|Bamum]] king [[:en:Ibrahim_Njoya|Ibrahim Njoya]]]] Slaves don dey move since olden days along trade ways wey cross Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref> Oral stories talk say slavery dey for Kingdom of Kongo since e start, as Lukeni lua Nimi dey enslave Mwene Kabunga wey e conquer to set up di kingdom.<ref name="Heywood">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref> Early Portuguese write-ups show say di Kingdom get slavery before dem meet, but na mostly war captives from Ndongo Kingdom.<ref name="Heywood2">{{cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Linda M. |year=2009 |title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=50 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 |s2cid=154942266}}</ref><ref name="Birmingham">{{cite encyclopedia|date=25 January 2010|last=Birmingham|first=David|title=Central Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Slavery dey happen plenty for Upper Congo River, and for di second half of 18th century, dis place change to major source of slaves for di Atlantic slave trade, as di price for slaves for coast high make long-distance trade sweet. When di Atlantic trade finish, di price of slaves drop sharp-sharp, and local trade increase, with Bobangi traders controlling am. Di Bobangi self dey buy plenty slaves with di money wey dem make from selling ivory, and dem use dem to fill dem villages. Slaves wey dem sell from dem family, usually because of bad behavior like adultery, no go try run away. E still dey common to sell pikin during famine. But captured slaves fit try escape, so dem dey carry dem move hundreds of kilometres far from dem homes to make sure say dem no fit run.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref> De slave trade really jam dis area for Central Africa, e change all di things wey dey happen for society. E make traders fit create strong network wey dey carry food and handmade goods from small producers wey dey near di river. E be like sey just small slaves wey fit sit for canoe go cover di trip cost plus make profit, so traders go use di space wey no dey use for di canoe carry other goods come go far without adding plenty money. Even though di big money wey Mekong River slave trade dey bring go only reach small traders, dis side of di trade still help local producers and customers small.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harms|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|pages=48–51}}</ref> For some areas inside Congo Basin, e no dey rare for dem to kill slave and chop am, especially during celebration times.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edgerton|first1=Robert B.|title=The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo|date=2002|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|pages=86–88, 108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekholm Friedman|first1=Kajsa|title=Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=228–232, 245}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogg|first1=Garry|title=Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice|date=1958|publisher=Robert Hale|location=London|pages=103–105, 108|author-link1=Garry Hogg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jewsiewicki|first1=Bogumil|title=The Ideology of Slavery in Africa|last2=Mumbanza mwa Bawele|date=1981|publisher=Sage|editor1-last=Lovejoy|editor1-first=Paul|location=Beverly Hills|pages=75, 80–82|chapter=The Social Context of Slavery in Equatorial Africa during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rubinstein|first=William D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA18|title=Genocide: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-582-50601-5|location=New York|pages=18–20|author-link1=William Rubinstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Siefkes|first1=Christian|url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible|title=Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh|date=2022|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1-80073-613-9|location=New York|at=chs. 4–10}}</ref> People wey see am, dem talk say dem dey buy, butcher, and chop slave like say na normal daily hustle, no wahala, e no get strong emotions. Dem wey dey do am see am like e no different from how dem dey chop goat and other animals.{{sfn|Ekholm Friedman|2013|p=230}}{{sfn|Siefkes|2022|pp=91, 96–97}} ===== West Africa ===== [[File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_"Guinea"_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1743_Homann_Heirs_Map_of_West_Africa_(_Slave_Trade_references_)_%22Guinea%22_-_Geographicus_-_Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|left|thumb|Homann Heirs map of de slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[:en:Ras_Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, de [[:en:Chiloango_River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on de Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]] Different kinds of slavery dey happen for different places for West Africa before Europe come trade.<ref name="Manning-19832">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa |journal=American Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=835–857 |doi=10.2307/1874022 |jstor=1874022 |s2cid=155847068}}</ref> Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi talk say, for places like Ghana, dem don already get indigenous slavery by 1st century AD, e start from long ago.<ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> Even though slavery dey exist, e no too common for plenty West African societies wey no be Islamic before Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Before dem bring slave trade for Atlantic, West Africa no get wetin go fit make slave society work well, like small market size and no proper job division.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> Most West African societies dey run as family units, so slavery no dey too main for how dem dey produce things.<ref name="Lovejoy-20128">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> For dem kinship societies, slaves go fit do almost the same work wey free people dey do.<ref name="Lovejoy-20129">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> But e be true wetin Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe talk say, until late 19th Century, slavery for Kingdom of Benin, and other West African kingdoms, get hin own place for the state structure, e come from the 'economic, military, social and political needs of the Benin kingdom'. Oba (king) and normal citizens dey own slaves. For pre-colonial Benin, dem dey get slaves in plenty ways: through wars wey dem dey use take expand, gifts wey dem dey give Oba, wey sef dey inherit slaves from pipo wey no fit write will and also tribute wey dey come from dependent areas to Oba and big chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those wey dey do serious crime fit either face execution or dem go sell dem into slavery. If person get plenty slaves, e be sign of hin status. Slaves dey work for militia and dey be main labour force for chiefs, plus dem dey meet local needs for human sacrifices. When dem finally ban slavery, e bring plenty wahala wey get economic, political and social consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Igbafe |first=Philip A. |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou's_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[:en:Mossi_people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid]] Martin Klein talk say before Atlantic trade, slaves for Western Sudan be just small part of di population, dem dey inside di house, dey work with free people for di house, plus dey join network wey be face-to-face link.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref> As trans-Saharan slave trade and gold money begin grow for western Sahel, plenty major states begin structure around di slave trade, like Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Bono State and Songhai Empire.<ref name="Meillassoux">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> But some communities for West Africa no gree accept slave trade. The Jola dem no wan join the slave matter till seventeenth century come finish, and dem no use slave work for their side until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga too fight against the slave trade, you know.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hillbom|first=Ellen|title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave|page=70}}</ref> Di Mossi Kingdoms dey try grab important places for di trans-Saharan trade, but when dem no fit, dem come turn defenders against slave raiding wey powerful states from di western Sahel dey run. Later on, di Mossi join for di slave trade inside di 1800s, mostly for di Atlantic slave trade.<ref name="Meillassoux2">{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1991|location=Chicago}}</ref> [[File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-07-p101.jpg|thumb|Human sacrifice of slaves in the kingdom of [[:en:Dahomey|Dahomey]]]] Senegal be di starting point for slave trade, and di Homann Heirs map show where dem dey move people and trade well.{{clarify|date=March 2023}} Di culture for Gold Coast no dey based on land wey family sabi grow, but on power wey person hold. For Western Africa, dem develop slavery as dem sabi wetin go fit help di aristocracy and wetin go fit suit di area. Dis kind governance use di 'political tool' to check different work and di way dem dey take blend slavery. Domestic and farm work dey show say e be main thing for Western Africa, because dem dey see slaves like 'political tools' wey fit give you access and status. Slaves dey marry plenty wives pass their owners, and e dey boost owners' status too. No be all slaves dey do the same work. European colonizers join the trade to fit their country's pocket. Dem Moorish traders for desert and Portuguese traders wey no too strong show say different ways wey dem dey use slaves so far, and where dem dey go for the trade. Historian Walter Rodney talk say no slavery or big domestic work for early European stories wey talk about Upper Guinea region. I. A. Akinjogbin self dey argue say European accounts show say slave trade no be big thing for coastline wey Yoruba and Aja people dey control before Europeans come land.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1967|oclc=469476592}}</ref> For one paper wey dem read for Ethnological Society of London for 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja, Mr. T. Valentine Robins, wey go on journey up River Niger with HMS Investigator for 1864, come describe slavery for that area: {{blockquote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}}When Atlantic slave trade start, e make people dey rush for slaves for West Africa and plenty states turn plenty for slave trade, domestic slavery too start dey rise well well.<ref name="Manning-1990">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Hugh Clapperton for 1824 talk say half of Kano people be slaves. For Gold Coast area, plenty of dem wey dem capture be from far inside the land, dem be defeated people from plenty wars wey dem dey sell as part of wetin dem dey call "eating de country" wey dey try scatter fallen enemies make dem no fit regroup again.<ref name="Sparks process2">{{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674724877|pages=122–161|chapter=4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe}}</ref> Ghana historian Akosua Perbi talk say from 15th to 19th century for Ghana, di main way dem dey get slaves na through war, slave market, pawning, raid, kidnapping and tribute, while di small-small ways na from gifts, convictions, community or private deals.<ref name="Perbi Ghana2">{{cite book|last1=Perbi|first1=Akosua Adoma|title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century|date=2004|publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers|isbn=9789988550325|location=Legon, Accra, Ghana|pages=26–30}}</ref> [[File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_'Marchand_d'Esclaves_de_Goree'_LACMA_M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[:en:Gorée|Gorée]], {{circa|1797}}]] For Senegambia area between 1300 and 1900, e be like one-third of di people na slaves. For early Islamic states of di western Sahel like Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), around one third of di population na slaves. For Sierra Leone in di 19th century, about half of di people na slaves. Among di Vai people for di 19th century, three quarters of dem be slaves. For di 19th century, at least half di people wey dey among di Duala of Cameroon and other folk around lower Niger, di Kongo, and di Kasanje kingdom plus Chokwe of Angola, na slaves. For Ashanti and Yoruba, one third of di people shawa na slaves. Di population of Kanem (1600–1800) get about one-third as slaves. E fit be like 40% for Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900, from one to two-thirds of di whole people for di Fulani jihad states na slaves. Di population of di largest Fulani state, di Sokoto Caliphate, at least half na slaves for di 19th century. Among di Adrar, 15 percent na slaves, and 75 percent of di Gurma na slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=30 December 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery dey very common among di Tuareg people and plenty of dem still dey hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Ines Kohl|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|author2=Anja Fischer|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref> When British dem come control Sokoto Caliphate and di areas for northern Nigeria for di 20th century waka, around 2 million to 2.5 million people dey suffer as slaves.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Di slavery matter for northern Nigeria finish around 1936 be di end.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> ===== African Great Lakes ===== [[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibari]] slave trader [[:en:Tippu_Tip|Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves]] Sea trade dey happen from eastern Africa Great Lakes to Persia, China, and India for di first millennium AD, and dem talk say slaves be small matter compare to gold and ivory. When dem mention am, di slave trade no be big, e dey mostly happen when dem dey carry women and children from Kilwa Kisiwani, Madagascar, and Pemba islands. For places like Uganda, di experience for women wey dey in slavery no be like di normal slavery wey dey happen then. Di roles wey people dey take depend on gender and di position for di society. First, we gatz sabi sey Uganda get different types of slavery, wey get peasants and den slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard talk say dem get clear difference with dis: If dem peasant show bravery for battle, dem go fit get slaves from di lord or chief wey dem fight for. E be possible say dem fit collect slaves from relatives wey don become chiefs, or dem fit inherit slaves from dem papa. Dem get two types: abanyage (dem wey war carry come) and abagule (dem wey dem buy). All dis na under abenvumu or true slaves, meaning dem no free at all. Higher level be di young Ganda wey dem maternal uncles go put for slavery (or pawn), normally to repay debt... On top dat, both chiefs and king dey use sons of rich men wey wan show dem respect to win favor for demself or dem pikin. Dem na abasige and dem dey increase noble family plenty... All dis different categories of people wey dey house be classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants), whether dem be slave or free-born.(175) For di Great Lakes area for Africa (like wey dem dey call Uganda now), dem don get signs wey show say slavery dey through war capture, trade, en pawning since long time; but e be like dis pawning don increase plenty for 18th en 19th centuries, no be small.<ref name="Schoenbrun">{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|year=2007|location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> Dis slaves wey dem consider dem pass di ones from Gold Coast. Dem dey look dem with more respect because of di training wey dem sabi. Di language wey slaves dey use for Great Lakes area no be di same. Dis water area dey make am easy for dem to catch slaves and carry dem go. Dem dey call dem captive, refugee, slave, peasant en plenty names so to describe dem wey dey for di trade. Di difference na wetin dem go use dem for and where dem catch dem. Methods like pillage, plunder, en capture na di words wey dey common for dis region to show wetin be di trade. [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|Slave traders plus de pipo dem capture, dem chain dem en put 'taming sticks' for deir neck. dis one de come from Livingstone's story]] Historians Campbell and Alpers talk say for Southeast Africa, dem get plenty kinds of work wey dey happen. Dem also reason say de difference between slave en free people no really matter for most communities.<ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |last2=Alpers |first2=Edward A. |year=2004 |title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=ix–xxvii |doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992 |s2cid=144847867}}</ref> But as international trade dey grow for 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa begin to join de Atlantic slave trade big time; like wen king of Kilwa island sign contract with French merchant for 1776 to deliver 1,000 slaves every year.<ref name="Kusimba">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Around that time, traders from Oman, India, en Southeast Africa dey start set up plantations for di coast and di islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To fit workers for dem plantations, dem dey raid slaves en hold dem like say na normal tin for di region, en slave traders like Tippu Tip dey come up for di political scene well well.<ref name="Kusimba2">{{cite journal |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha M. |year=2004 |title=The African Archaeological Review |journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–88 |doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a |jstor=25130793 |s2cid=161103875}}</ref> Southeast African trade dey shine for early 1800s, wey dem dey sell like 30,000 slaves every year. But e no really fit become strong matter for local economies, except for Zanzibar wey dem get plantations en agricultural slavery wey dem still dey maintain.<ref name="Manning-19902">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> Author en historian Timothy Insoll talk say: "Dem record say 718,000 slaves dey waka come out from Swahili coast for 19th century, and dem still get 769,000 wey still dey for coast."<ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> For different times, like 65 to 90 percent of Zanzibar dey be slaves. For Kenya side, 90 percent of people be slaves, wey half of Madagascar people dey also be slaves.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey, Slave societies|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ===== South Africa ===== {{further|Slavery in South Africa}}Some African leaders, especially from Zulu and other Nguni dem, dey join slave trade by catching people from enemy groups when fight dey happen. Dem go sell those people into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 January 2025|title=South Africa – Delagoa Bay, Slave Trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/The-Delagoa-Bay-slave-trade|access-date=16 January 2025|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> == Changes wey happen == {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}}De way wey slave relationships for Africa don change na through four big processes: de trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Atlantic slave trade, plus de policies wey free slaves for 19th plus 20th centuries. All dis processes really change de way slavery be, de level, plus de money wey dey involve for Africa.<ref name="Lovejoy-201210">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De slave wahala for Africa, e dey show different times wey European dem go fit use am to link with Africa people. For 18th century, some writers for Europe talk say slavery for Africa dey too harsh, na to fit justify de Atlantic slave trade. Later writers come dey use de same gist to justify how European powers go fit intervene den colonize to stop slavery for Africa.<ref name="Klein-1978">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> Africans sabi wetin dey happen to slaves insyde de New World. Plenty big men for Africa dey waka go Europe on slave ships wey follow de wind go New World. Example be dis: Antonio Manuel, wey be Kongo ambassador to Vatican, go Europe for 1604, e stop for Bahia, Brazil, wey e arrange make dem free one of him paddy wey dem wrongly put for slavery. African kings too dey send their pikin dem follow this slave route to school for Europe, and plenty former slaves come later return build Liberia and Sierra Leone. ===== Trans-Saharan, Red Sea plus Indian Ocean slave trade ===== {{main article|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} ===== De beginning times ===== Beginning records of de trans-Saharan slave trade dey come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus for 5th century BC.<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Di Garamentes wey Herodotus talk about dem, dey be people wey dey do trans-Saharan slave trade and dey carry cave dweller 'Ethiopians' (Ethiopian be Greek name for Black, no be people wey come from Ethiopia), or Troglodytae. Di Berber Garamentes dey depend plenty on di work of slaves from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2011|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=9 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> dem dey use slaves for dia own communities to build and manage underground water system wey Berbers sabi as foggara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mattingly|first=David|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref> For early Roman Empire time, Lepcis city sabi set up slave market wey dey buy en sell slaves from Africa inside.<ref name="apuleius22">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> Di empire put customs tax for slave trade matter.<ref name="apuleius23">{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Keith R.|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref> For 5th century AD, Roman Carthage dey trade black slaves wey dem carry come from Sahara.<ref name="exports222">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Black slaves dey special for Mediterranean as house slaves because dem get fine look. Some historians talk say slave trade for dis time fit dey more than medieval times because Roman Empire dey need plenty slaves.<ref name="exports223">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Andrew|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–193|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref> Slave trade for Indian Ocean start since 2500 BC.<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78|quote=The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BC, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.}}</ref> Old Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians and Persians dey trade slaves small-small across Indian Ocean (and sometimes Red Sea).<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Around de time of Alexander de Great, Agatharchides talk say dem dey trade slaves for Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean22">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Strabo's Geographica (finish after 23 AD) talk say Greeks from Egypt dey trade slaves for port of Adulis and other ports for Somali coast.<ref name="indianocean23">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Pliny de Elder's Natural History (publish for 77 AD) also describe Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref name="indianocean24">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> For 1st century AD, Periplus of Erythraean Sea dey talk say e get plenty chance for slave trade for de area, especially de trading of 'fine girls for side chick work'.<ref name="indianocean25">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Dis manual talk say, dem dey carry slaves come out from Omana (wey fit dey around wey Oman dey now) and Kanê go west coast of India.<ref name="indianocean26">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> De old Indian Ocean slave trade dey come from de way dem build boat wey fit carry plenty pipo cross di Persian Gulf, using wood wey dem bring from India. Dis shipbuilding don dey happen since Assyrian, Babylonian and Achaemenid times times oo.<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> After Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire join for slave business for 1st century, e turn big deal o.<ref name="indianocean27">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> Cosmas Indicopleustes talk for him Christian Topography (550 AD) sey dem go take slaves wey dem catch for Ethiopia put am for Byzantine Egypt through Red Sea.<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> E too talk say dem fit bring non-Africa eunuchs from Byzantines wey dey Mesopotamia en India.<ref name="indianocean42">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref> After 1st century, black Africans wey dem dey ship go everywhere don turn 'constant factor'.<ref name="indianocean32">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref> under de Sassanian,de Indian Ocean trade no be only slaves dem carry, e be scholars plus merchants too wey dem dey move.<ref name="indianocean28">{{cite book|last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref> ===== Arab slave traders en markets ===== [[File:089 Le marché aux esclaves à Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|De slave market insyde Zanzibar, {{circa|1860}}]] De enslavement of Africans for eastern markets don start before 7th century but e no too dey high till 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> De trade dey burst around 1850 but e fit don finish by 1900.<ref name="Oriental122">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> Muslim wey dey join slave trade start for de eighth en ninth century AD, e start with small-small movement of people, plenty from de eastern Great Lakes area and de Sahel. Islamic law gree for slavery, but e no gree make dem take other Muslims wey don dey exist before; so, de main people wey dem dey target to enslave na de ones wey dey live for de border areas of Islam for Africa.<ref name="Alexander4">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa |journal=World Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=44–60 |doi=10.1080/00438240126645 |jstor=827888}}</ref> De slave trade wey dey cross Sahara and Indian Ocean get long story, e start when Arab traders begin control sea routes for ninth century. Dem talk say at dat time, small small thousands of people wey no free dey carry go every year from Red Sea and Indian Ocean shore. Dem dey sell dem for Middle East. Dis trade dey hot as better ships come make trade dey plenty en dem dey need more hands for plantation. As time go, tens of thousands dey carry go every year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donnelly Fage|first1=John|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=William|date=December 2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415252485|edition=4|location=Budapest|page=258|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}</ref> For Swahili Coast, Afro-Arab slavers dey trap Bantu people from insyde come bring dem to di shore.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|year=2000|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of World Civilizations|publisher=Wiley|year=1973|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615}}</ref> der, de slaves slowly fit in dem rural areas, especially for de Unguja en Pemba islands.<ref name="Lodhi" /> Dis one change di slave matter, as e make new jobs for slaves (like eunuchs wey dey guard harems, and for military). E also create chance for freedom (like conversion—though e go only free di children of di slave).<ref name="Lovejoy-201211">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Johnson5">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Douglas H. |year=1989 |title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–88 |doi=10.2307/482742 |jstor=482742}}</ref> Even though trade no too big, di total number of slaves wey don pass through di trade plenty for many years.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Because e small and dey happen slowly, de way e take affect slavery for people wey no convert to Islam no too plenty.<ref name="Lovejoy-201212" /> But for 1800s, de slave trade wey dey go Africa to de Islamic countries really catch fire. Wen de European slave trade stop around 1850s, di trade go east start to shine again before e finish wen di Europeans come colonize Africa around 1900.<ref name="Manning-19903">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> From 1500 to 1900, about 17 million African slaves waka go reach Indian Ocean shore, Middle East, plus North Africa, thanks to Muslim traders.<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref> For 1814, Swiss guy wey dem call Johann Burckhardt talk about him waka for Egypt and Nubia, where he see dem dey trade slaves: "E plenty times, I don watch two scenes wey dey very shameful, plus na only de traders wey dey act am dey laugh. I fit talk say, very few female slaves wey don pass ten years fit reach Egypt or Arabia as virgin."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809060546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis/nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref> [[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Swahili-Arab slave traders plus de people wey dem catch for Ruvuma River for Mozambique, 19th century]] David Livingstone dey talk about de slave trade for East Africa for him journals: {{Blockquote|text=  To sabi all di bad matter no fit happen, e dey impossible.[112]: 442 }} Livingstone talk say one group of slaves dey waka wey Arab slave traders force dem for African Great Lakes area when e dey travel there for 1866: {{Blockquote|content=  19th June 1866 – We pass one woman wey dem tie her neck to tree, she don die. de people for di place talk say she no fit follow di other slaves wey dey work, ein master don decide say she no go belong to anybody if she recover.[112]: 56  26th June 1866 – ... We see one slave woman wey dem don shoot or stab, she dey lie for ground: group of men dey around hundred yards far from one side, plus some women dey another side dey watch; dem talk say one Arab wey pass early morning do am vex because he don lose de money wey ein pay for her, cause she no fit waka again. 27th June 1866 – Today, we come see one man wey don die from hunger, ein dey too thin. One of our guys waka come find plenty slaves wey dem don leave for side, dem get slave-sticks on, dem masters don abandon dem because no food; dem too weak to even talk or say where dem come from; some of dem be small pikin.[112]: 62 }}De way wey people dey die for trans-Saharan routes dey match how e be for trans-Atlantic. E no easy for slaves wey dey travel go Egypt, plus North Africa, e be high die rate, even if dem dey feed dem well plus treat dem fine. Old books wey slaves buyers dey use – wey dem write for Arabic, Persian plus Turkish – talk say Africans wey come from Sudanic en Ethiopian area dey sick en fit die when dem reach new place.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref> Zanzibar be di main slave port for East Africa before, en during di 19th century, Omani Arabs dey control am, plenty slaves, like 50,000, dey pass through di city every year through di Zanzibar slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2002|title=Swahili Coast|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html|archive-date=1 October 2005|publisher=.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===== European pipo wey de do trade plus colonial markets ===== European slave trade for Indian Ocean start when Portugal set up Estado da Índia for early 16th century. Till around 1830s, roughly 200 slaves dey comot from Mozambique every year, and dem same number dey estimated for slaves wey dem carry from Asia go Philippines during Iberian Union (1580-1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref> De Dutch East India Company start for early 17th century make slavery hustle boom big-time for the area; dem fit get like 500,000 slaves for different Dutch colonies for 17th den 18th centuries for Indian Ocean. For example, about 4000 African slaves dey used build Colombo fortress for Dutch Ceylon. Bali plus dem neighboring islands dey supply local network with around 100,000-150,000 slaves from 1620-1830. Indian plus Chinese slave traders dey bring like 250,000 slaves come Dutch Indonesia during 17th den 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> De East India Company (EIC) start during dat time, plus for 1622, one of dem ship carry slaves from Coromandel Coast go Dutch East Indies. EIC dey trade mostly for African slaves but dem dey chop some Asian slaves wey dem buy from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. De French come establish colonies for Réunion den Mauritius for 1721; by 1735, about 7,200 slaves dey live for di Mascarene Islands, plus dis number reach 133,000 by 1807. De British come take di islands for 1810, but since dem don ban slave trade for 1807, dem start secret small-small slave trade to carry slaves go French farm owners for de islands; for all, 336,000–388,000 slaves don dey export go Mascarane Islands from 1670 to 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> For all, European traders carry 567,900–733,200 slaves from Indian Ocean between 1500 den 1850, plus dem carry almost same number from Indian Ocean to Americas during dis time. But make I tell you, slave trade for Indian Ocean no plenty like de {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves wey dem carry cross di Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" /> ===== Atlantic slave trade ===== {{main article|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|African slaves wey de work for Virginia for 17th century, by artist wey nobody sabi, 1670]] De Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade dey go on for di Atlantic Ocean from 15th to 19th century. Patrick Manning talk say dis trade really change how Africans dey, dem move from small minority wey dey be slaves for de world for 1600 to plenty wey take over by 1800. By 1850, de number of African slaves for Africa don pass de ones for de Americas.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal |last=Manning |first=Patrick |year=1990 |title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System |journal=Social Science History |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=255–279 |doi=10.2307/1171441 |jstor=1171441}}</ref> De slave trade change from small part to de economy to the biggest business na just small time. Plus, agriculture farms grow plenty en dem turn key part for plenty societies.<ref name="Lovejoy-201214">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> De big cities wey use to be de root of de main trade road don move go West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Dantzig |first=Albert |date=1975 |title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |volume=62 |issue=226 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At de same time, plenty African communities move go far from de slave trade roads, dem dey try protect demself from Atlantic slave trade but e dey block dem from making economic den tech development too.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306165031/http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=24 November 2019|website=AAME}}</ref> [[File:Esclavatge - Comèrci mondiau sègle XVIII.png|thumb|European colonial empires, African kingdoms plus dem trade roads for 18th century]] For plenty African communities, traditional lineage slavery don turn more like chattel slavery because work demand don increase.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This one make life dey bad for many people, wetin dem dey work and status of slaves for West Africa no too dey fine. Assimilative slavery dey fade away, come replace am with chattel slavery. For Africa, assimilative slavery go still let some slaves fit chop freedom, plus dem fit influence culture, social matter, and money too. Slaves dey often see as family members, no be just somebody property.<ref name=":22" /> Di way dem dey share sex for di enslaved people under traditional lineage slavery show say women be more desirable slaves. Dem need dem for house work and to born pikin too.<ref name=":22" /> Boys wey dey work as slaves na dem dey do plenty heavy farm work,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |date=29 July 2010 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Mark M |editor2-last=Paquette |editor2-first=Robert L |title=Gender and Slavery |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24 |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but as more men dem carry come West Coast and cross Atlantic go New World, dem dey use more girls too for farm work and dem dey collect plenty wives. Chattel slavery for America dey rough because plantation work hard and na dis place be the main spot wey boys slaves dey land for New World.<ref name=":22" /> [[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Debret mindset wen ein hear of pipo wey be slaves for Brazil (1839)]] Dem talk say when plenty able people waka go during the Atlantic slave trade, e fit make many societies no fit cultivate land well den grow. Many smart people dey argue say de slave trade wey cross Atlantic leave Africa underdeveloped, plenty people no balance for dem population, plus make dem dey weak for future colonization from Europe.<ref name=":1" /> De first white people wey land for Guinea coast na de Portuguese; de first white man wey actually buy enslaved Africans for di area na Antão Gonçalves, wey be Portuguese explorer for 1441 AD. Dem come mainly to trade for gold en spice, come set colony for de empty islands of São Tomé. For de 16th century, de Portuguese wey settle find say de volcanic islands dey good for sugar farming. Sugar farming no be small wahala plus de Portuguese settlers no easy to bring because of de heat, no better road, plus de hard life. So, to grow di sugar, dem start rely on plenty enslaved Africans. Elmina Castle for de Gold Coast, wey de African workers build for de Portuguese for 1482 to fit control de gold trade, come turn important place for slaves wey dem go carry go New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref> [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|left|thumb|Slave trade along the [[:en:Senegal_River|Senegal River]], kingdom of [[:en:Cayor|Cayor]]]] De Spanish na de first white people wey use enslave Africans for islands wey dey America like Cuba and Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook: Haiti|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha|archive-date=12 June 2009|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> where de wahala for death wey dey happen for local population make dem bring de first royal law to protect dem (Laws of Burgos, 1512–13). De first enslaved Africans land for Hispaniola for 1501 after de Papal Bull of 1493 give almost all de New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|year=1989|title=Health in Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=17 June 2008|access-date=13 January 2010|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights}}</ref> For Igboland, dem Aro oracle (dem Igbo religion people) dey start punish plenty people wey small matter fit no even fit carry dem go slavery before, so e make more guys dey available for slavery wey people fit buy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> [[File:Africa de l'Oèst (fin sègle XVIII).png|thumb|[[:en:Asante_Empire|Asante]] plus other West African kingdoms, 18th century]] De Atlantic slave trade burst well for late 18th century, when plenty people from West Africa dey buy or capture go America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|access-date=28 May 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> De wahala wey come from European colonial powers expansion for de New World make de slave trade sweet pass, so de West African powers dey chop beta money from am. E bring plenty empires wey dey thrive on de slave trade, like Bono State, Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro, Kingdom of Koya, Khasso, Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, plus Dahomey kingdom. [[File:Slave factories, or compounds, maintained by traders from four European nations on the Gulf of Guinea in what is now Nigeria) - N. Parr, sculp LCCN92520148.jpg|thumb|Slave factories wey traders from four European countries maintain for Gulf of Guinea for wetin dem dey call Nigeria now, 1746]] Dose kingdoms dey use soldier lifestyle wey plenty war dey happen, so dem fit gather plenty humans wey dem go fit sell to de Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-201213">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|access-date=13 January 2010|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> E dey show for de Slave Trade Debates wey happen for England for de early 19th century: 'All de old writers no dey agree say wars no be just for making slaves, but dem also dey say Europeans dey start am for dat reason.'<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> As dem dey gradually stop slavery for European colonia empires during de19th century, e make de African empires slow down den finally collapse. When European countries start to halt de Atlantic slave trade, e make dem big men wey get slaves for Africa begin use dem for plantation plus other farm products.<ref name="Gueye">{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|publisher=UNESCO|year=1979|location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref> ===== Abolition ===== {{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}} ===== 18th en 19th centuries ===== Last big change wey happen for slave matter na when dem start to free slave small-small for mid-19th century. As European people dey take over plenty land for inland Africa wey don start for de 1870s, de colonial policies no clear at all. E be like say, even wen dem talk say slavery no legal again, de colonial authorities go still carry back people wey don run away go give dem master.<ref name="Lovejoy-201215">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> Slavery still dey continue for some countries for de colonial rule time, plus for some times, e no be until dem get independence say dem start to dey change how slavery dey go.<ref name="Hahonou">{{cite journal |last1=Hahonou |first1=Eric |last2=Pelckmans |first2=Lotte |year=2011 |title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien |issue=20 |pages=141–162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref> fight against colonial wahala for Africa dey bring slaves plus dem former masters to gather fight for independence; but e no last long, after independence, political parties dey form based on slaves and masters levels.<ref name="Manning-19904">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> For some places for Africa, dem still dey do slavery plus slavery-like wahala, especially de illegal movement of women en pikin for bad things.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> De wahala don show sey e dey hard for government plus people wey dey fight for rights to fit remove am.<ref name="Dottridge">{{cite journal |last=Dottridge |first=Mike |year=2005 |title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification |url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=45 |issue=179/180 |pages=689–712 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |s2cid=144102510}}</ref> European guys start dey fight against slavery and slave trade for late 18th century, e really change tings for African slavery matter. Portugal be di first country for di continent wey cancel slavery for em mainland plus Portuguese India with law wey dem pass on 12 February 1761, but e no change wetin dey happen for demma colonies for Brazil and Africa. France don cancel slavery for 1794. But Napoleon bring am back for 1802, en e no finish till 1848. Denmark-Norway be de first European country wey really stop de slave trade for 1803. Slavery itself no really stop till 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7|volume=1. A – K|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> Britain be next in line wey drop am for 1807 wen dem pass Abolition of de Slave Trade Act for Parliament. dis law fit chop serious fines, e dey increase as the number of slaves wey dem carry be plenty, for slave ship captains. After dat, dem bring the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 wey free all slaves for de British Empire. Dem British people dey pressure other countries wey make dem gree say dem go stop slave trade from Africa. Like say , de 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade wey turn slave trading to piracy, if dem catch you, na death be de punishment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|access-date=11 January 2010|publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> plus, de [[:en:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman Empire]] don cancel slave trade from Africa for 1847 sekof British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tôledānô|first=Ehûd R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|publisher=U. of Washington Press|year=1998|isbn=9780295802428|page=11}}</ref> By 1850, na de year wey dem last big player for Atlantic slave trade (Brazil) pass de Eusébio de Queirós Law wey ban de slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|title=A Concise History of Brazil|date=28 April 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521565264|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110]|access-date=4 June 2011|url-access=registration}}</ref> de slave trades don slow down well well, plus e be only illegal trade wey dey happen. Brazil still dey carry on plus slavery matter , plus na dem be de major source for illegal trade till around 1870 en De end of slavery come tun forever, e go dey always for 1888 wen Princess Isabel of Brazil plus Minister Rodrigo Silva (wey be Eusebio de Queiroz paddy) ban de matter.<ref name="Manning-19905">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref> De British dey try hard to stop de illegal Atlantic slave trade for dis time. De West Africa Squadron don catch 1,600 slave ships from 1808 to 1860, wey dem don free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside di ships.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|title=Sailing Against Slavery|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|access-date=12 January 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Dem take action against African leaders wey no gree sign British treaties wey go stop de trade, like say, de 'usurping King of Lagos' wey dem remove for 1851. Dem sign anti-slavery treaties with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=6 April 2006|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> [[File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Brisk_and_Emanuela.jpg|left|thumb|Capture of de slave ship ''[[:en:Sunny_South_(clipper)|Emanuela]]'' ]]As Patrick Manning talk am, internal slavery na big matter for Africa during second half of de 19th century. E say, "if na any time we fit talk say African societies dey organize around slave production, na from 1850–1900 e be." Wen dem cancel de Atlantic slave trade, e make African states wey depend on de trade, change dem economy to focus on local plantation slavery plus proper business wey slave labour dey work. Before dis time, slavery na mostly for home matter. <ref name="Manning-19906">{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|publisher=Cambridge|year=1990|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Austin2">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/DDBD4D7ECCB2B8A2C5D97E3609511366|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781139046176|editor1=David Eltis|volume=4|location=New York|chapter=Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936|doi=10.1017/9781139046176|editor2=Stanley L. Engerman|editor3=Seymour Drescher|editor4=David Richardson}}</ref> De anti-slavery movement wey dey happen for Europe don turn excuse plus reason for dem to conquer den colonize plenty parts of Africa.<ref name="Klein-19782">{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Martin A. |year=1978 |title=The Study of Slavery in Africa |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=599–609 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref> E be de main gist for Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference wey happen for 1889-90. For de late 19th century, de Scramble for Africa make dem quickly divide de continent between European powers wey wan control am, en one early but small focus for all de colonial masters na to suppress slavery plus de slave trade. Seymour Drescher dey talk say European people wey wan end slavery, na mainly because of dem money plus imperial aim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> Even though dem dey use slavery as excuse for conquest, colonial masters no dey really care about am, or dem go just allow slavery make e continue. Dis be secof colonial people need local leaders plus deir money matter, wey plenty dey involved for slavery. So, at first, early colonial policies go de try stop slave trade, but dem go still manage de slavery wey dey happen den try weaken de power of de slave masters.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> Plus, de early colonial states no get strong control over dem area, so dem no fit cancel tings widely. Dem try make abolition happen more strongly later for de colonial time.<ref name=":52" /> ===== 20th century till World War II ===== Plenty tings be de reason slavery slow down den finally dem cancel am for Africa during de colonial time, some of saa reasons be say na dem get colonial policies wey dey talk of cancelling am, economic changes too no be small, plus slaves sef dey resist. During colonial time, de way work change wey wage labour plus cash crops rise, e make slavery dey slowdown fast secof e give slaves new chances . Dem stop slave raiding en wars between African states plus dat one wey make plenty slaves reduce. Slaves go use early colonial laws wey sey dem don stop slavery, dem go waka comot from dem masters but dose laws dey more for control than to really stop am. Dis waka bring more serious efforts to stop slavery from colonial government.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greene |first=Sandra E. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Minority Voices: Abolitionism in West Africa |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=642–661 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1008213 |issn=0144-039X |s2cid=144012357}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-201216">{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|location=London}}</ref> After French people don conquer den cancel slave matter, over one million slaves for French West Africa jammed their leg run from dem masters go back home between 1906 den 1911.<ref>Martin Klein, "Slave Descent and Social Status in Sahara and Sudan", in Reconfiguring Slavery: West African Trajectories, ed. Benedetta Rossi (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 29.</ref> For [[:en:Madagascar|Madagascar]] dem don release over 500,000 slaves after French cancel am for 1896<ref>Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. New York: CRC Press, p. 878</ref> Sekof dis pressure, Ethiopia don officially cancel slavery for 1932, de Sokoto Caliphate don also cancel am for 1900, plus de rest of Sahel follow do am for 1911. After Trans-Atlantic slave trade don end, other roads wey de carry enslave people from Africa don continue till e enter de 20th century. Indian Ocean slave trade, plus Zanzibar slave trade, British don fight dem with plenty anti-slavery agreements wey dem push on Zanzibar Sultan between 1822 and 1909, each one dey limit slave trade wey dey happen between Swahili coast of East Africa plus Arabian Peninsula. For 1867 agreement, dem pressure Zanzibar make dem stop to export slaves go Arabia, plus make dem contain slave trade insyde Sultanate borders, na only between Latitude 9 degrees South of Kilwa plus Latitude 4 degrees South of Lamu.<ref>Mbogoni, L. E. Y. (2013). Aspects of Colonial Tanzania History. Tanzania: Mkuki na Nyota. p. 172</ref> After 1867, British dem go dey fight slave trade for Indian Ocean but Omani slave dhows wey dey use French colours dey carry slaves go Arabia plus Persian Gulf from East Africa, even reach Mozambique. French people no fit talk anything till 1905, wen Hague International Tribunal tell dem make dem stop French flags for Omani dhows; but small small smuggling of slaves from East Africa go Arabia still dey happen till 1960s.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 25</ref> For 20th century, na de League of Nations don take slavery matter serious, dem set up committees wey go investigate den cancel slavery plus slave trade for de whole world. De Temporary Slavery Commission (TSC) run em global investigation from 1924–1926, dem file report, plus dem create de 1926 Slavery Convention wey go make sure say dem fit cancel slavery plus slave trade fast fast.<ref>Miers, Suzanne (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press, pp. 100–121</ref> For 1932, de League create Committee of Experts wey go look insyde de result plus how dem fit enforce de 1926 Slavery Convention. Dis one bring new international investigation under de first permanent slavery committee, de Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery (ACE).<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 216</ref> Dis two investigations talk say, African slaves dey move from Africa go Muslim Arab world, where dem still dey accept chattel slavery. De Trans-Saharan slave trade dem try fight am, but de colonial masters wey dey control de Sahara region since late 19th century no really get power for de place like dat. De French, Spanish, Italian British dem dey yan say dem dey fight de old slave trade wey dey carry Africans go Arab North Africa plus Middle East. But truth be say, de colonial masters from de West no fit control de Sahara area well well, so dem no really stop de slave trade, but e dey small small reduce am. De colonial people talk say di slave trade dey still happen for 1930s, even though dem dey fight am well. De Italians come report to de Advisory Committee wey sabi about slavery say de Trans-Saharan slave trade don clear as Italian dem dey conquer, wey dem free 900 slaves for Kufra market.<ref name="ReferenceB">Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. 226</ref> plus For de 1936 report to de Advisory Committee of pipo wey sabi slavery, de French, British plus Italian people talk say dem check de water sources wey dey along de caravan routes for Sahara to fight de Trans-Saharan slave trade from Nigeria go North Africa.<ref name="sm">Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. p. 279</ref> For 1937, report wey go meet de Advisory Committee of Experts for slavery, both France den Spain dey talk sey dem dey fight de slave raiders from trans-Saharan. den for 1938, French people don talk sey dem don secure border area wey dey near Morocco den Algeria, plus dem really stop de trans-Saharan slave trade for dat side.<ref name="sm" /> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal | last = Allen | first = R. B. | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} --> ==Read further== *{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}} *Hurston, Zora Neale (1927). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73715 Cudjo's Own Story of the Last African Slaver]''. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. *Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, ''Journal of African History''. Vol. 19. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. *Lecocq, Bas, and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, ''The International Journal of African History Studies''. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center. *{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} *{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=Allison and Busby|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|publisher=F. Cass|year=1992|editor=Savage, Elizabeth|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=The Slave Trade of East Africa|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa|publisher=Church Missionary Society|year=1869|location=London}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q3057915|c=Category:Slavery in Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. 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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery] * [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique] * [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade] {{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery in Africa}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Africa| ]] [[Category:African slave trade| ]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of Central Africa]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] dhrp1p6vnc7tvkhkr4hpjbd3zlpuh8t 0 16367 63838 60300 2025-06-17T11:57:02Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 i removed a link 63838 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Julius Kambarage Nyerere''' (Swahili pronunciation: [ˈdʒulius kɑᵐbɑˈɾɑɠɛ ɲɛˈɾɛɾɛ]; 13 April 1922 – 14 October 1999) na he be a Tanzanian politician, anti-colonial activist, den political theorist. Na he govern Tanganyika as prime minister from 1961 to 1962 den then as presido from 1962 to 1964, after wich na he lead ein successor state, [[Tanzania]], as presido from 1964 to 1985. Na he be a founding member den chair of de Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) party den of ein successor, Chama Cha Mapinduzi, from 1954 to 1990. Ideologically an African nationalist den African socialist, na he promote a political philosophy dem know as Ujamaa. Na dem born am insyd Butiama, Mara, then insyd de British colony of Tanganyika, na Nyerere be de son of a Zanaki chief. After he plete ein schooling, na he study for Makerere College insyd Uganda den then Edinburgh University insyd Scotland. Insyd 1952 na he return to Tanganyika, wey he marry, den work as a school teacher. Insyd 1954, na he help form TANU, thru wich na he campaign give Tanganyikan independence from de British Empire. Influenced by de Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi, na Nyerere preach non-violent protest make he achieve dis aim. Na dem elect am to de Legislative Council insyd de 1958–1959 elections, na Nyerere then lead TANU to victory for de 1960 general election, wey he cam turn prime minister. Na negotiations plus de British authorities result in Tanganyikan independence insyd 1961. Insyd 1962, na Tanganyika cam turn a republic, plus dem elect Nyerere as ein first presido. Na ein administration pursue decolonisation den de "Africanisation" of de civil service while e dey promote unity between indigenous Africans den de country ein Asian den European minorities. Na he encourage de formation of a one-party state wey he unsuccessfully pursue de Pan-Africanist formation of an East African Federation plus [[Uganda]] den [[Kenya]]. Na dem suppress a 1963 mutiny within de army plus British assistance. Dey follow de Zanzibar Revolution of 1964, na dem unify de island of Zanzibar plus Tanganyika make dem form Tanzania. After dis, na Nyerere place a growing emphasis on national self-reliance den socialism. Although na ein socialism differ from dat wey Marxism–Leninism promote, na Tanzania develop close links plus Mao Zedong ein China. Insyd 1967, na Nyerere issue de Arusha Declaration wich outline ein vision of ujamaa. Na dem nationalize banks den oda major industries den companies; na dem significantly expand education and healthcare. Na dem place renewed emphasis on agricultural development thru de formation of communal farms, although na dese reforms hamper food production wey e lef areas dependent on food aid. Na ein government provide training den aid to anti-colonialist groups wey dey fight white-minority rule thru out southern Africa wey na he oversee Tanzania ein 1978–1979 war plus Uganda wich na e result insyd de overthrow of Ugandan Presido [[Idi Amin]]. Insyd 1985, na Nyerere stand down wey na Ali Hassan Mwinyi succeed am, wey he reverse chaw of Nyerere ein policies. Na he remain chair of Chama Cha Mapinduzi til 1990, wey dey support a transition to a multi-party system, wey he later serve as mediator in attempts make he end de Burundian Civil War. Na Nyerere be a controversial figure. Across Africa na he gain widespread respect as an anti-colonialist wey in power he receive praise for ensuring say, unlike chaw of ein neighbours, Tanzania remain stable den unified insyd de decades dey follow independence. Na ein construction of de one-party state den use of detention widout trial lead to accusations of dictatorial governance, while na dem sanso blame am for economic mismanagement. Dem dey hold am in deep respect within Tanzania, wer he often be referred to by de Swahili honorific {{lang|sw|Mwalimu}} ("teacher") wey he be described as de "Father of de Nation". == Early life == === Kiddie time: 1922–1934 === Na dem born Julius Kambarage Nyerere on 13 April 1922 insyd Mwitongo, an area of de village of Butiama insyd Tanganyika ein Mara Region.Na he be one of 25 surviving kiddies of Nyerere Burito, de chief of de Zanaki people. Na dem born Burito insyd 1860 wey na dem give am de name "Nyerere" ("caterpillar" insyd Zanaki) after na a plague of worm caterpillars infest de local area at de time of ein birth. Na dem appoint Burito chief insyd 1915, wey dem install am insyd dat position by de German imperial administrators of wat na be then German East Africa; na dem sanso endorse ein position by de incoming British imperial administration. Na Burito get 22 wifeys, of whom na Julius ein mommie, Mugaya Nyang'ombe, be de fifth. Na dem born am insyd 1892 wey na she marry de chief insyd 1907, wen na she dey fifteen. Na Mugaya bear Burito four sons den four daughters, of wich na Nyerere be de second kiddie; na two of ein siblings die insyd infancy. === Schooling: 1934–1942 === Na de British colonial administration encourage de education of chiefs dema sons, wey dem dey believe say dis go help to perpetuate de chieftain system den prevent de development of a separate educated indigenous elite wey fi challenge colonial governance. For ein poppie ein prompting, na Nyerere begin ein education for de Native Administration School insyd Mwisenge, Musoma insyd February 1934, about 35&nbsp;km from ein home. Na dis place am insyd a privileged position; na chaw of ein contemporaries at Butiama no fi afford a primary education. Na ein education dey insyd Swahili, a language wey na he for learn while der. Na Nyerere excel at de school, den after six months na ein exam results be such dat na dem allow am make he skip a grade. Na he avoid sporting activities wey na he prefer make he read insyd ein dormitory during ein free time. === Makerere College, Uganda: 1943–1947 === [[File:Ssetendekero_Makerere.jpg|right|thumb|De main building at Makerere University insyd Uganda, wer na Nyerere study a teacher training course]] Insyd October 1941, na Nyerere plete ein secondary education wey he decide make he study at Makerere College insyd de Ugandan city of Kampala. Na he secure a bursary make dem fund a teacher training course der, wey he arrive insyd Uganda insyd January 1943. At Makerere, na he study alongsyd chaw of East Africa ein most talented students, although he spend little time dey socialise plus odas, instead he focus on ein reading. Na he take courses insyd chemistry, biology, Latin, den Greek. Dey deepen ein Catholicism, na he study de Papal Encyclicals wey he read de work of Catholic philosophers like Jacques Maritain; na most influential however be de writings of de liberal British philosopher John Stuart Mill. Na he win a literary competition plus an essay on de subjugation of women, for wich na he apply Mill ein ideas to Zanaki society. Na Nyyerere sanso be an active member of de Makere Debating Society, wey na he establish a branch of Catholic Action at de university. === Early teaching: 1947–1949 === On leaving Makerere, na Nyerere return home to Zanaki territory make he build a house give ein widowed mommie, before he spend ein time reading den farming insyd Butiama. Na dem offer am teaching positions at both de state-run Tabora Boys' School den de mission-run St Mary's, buh na he choose de latter despite e dey offer a lower wage. === Edinburgh University: 1949–1952 === [[File:Old_College,_University_of_Edinburgh_(24923171570).jpg|right|thumb|De Old College insyd Edinburgh]] Insyd April 1949, na Nyerere fly from Dar es Salaam to Southampton, England. Na he then travel, by train, from London to Edinburgh. Insyd de city, na Nyerere take lodgings insyd a building give "colonial persons" insyd The Grange suburb. Dey start ein studies for de University of Edinburgh, na he begin plus a short course insyd chemistry den physics wey he sanso pass Higher English insyd de Scottish Universities Preliminary Examination. Insyd October 1949 na dem accept am for entry make he study for a Master of Arts degree at de University of Edinburgh ein Faculty of Arts; na ein own be an Ordinary Degree of Master of Arts, wich na dem consider an undergraduate degree, de equivalent of a Bachelor of Arts insyd chaw English universities. == Political activism == === Dey found de Tanganyika African National Union: 1952–1955 === Na he sail aboard de SS ''Kenya Castle'', Nyerere arrive back insyd Dar es Salaam insyd October 1952. Na he take de train to Mwanza den then a lake steamer to Musoma before he reach Zanaki lands. Der, na he build a mud-brick house give einself den ein fiancé, Maria; na dem marry at Musoma mission on 24 January 1953. Na dem soon move go Pugu, closer to Dar es Salaam, wen na dem hire Nyerere make he teach history at St Francis' College, one of de leading schools for indigenous Africans insyd Tanganyika. Insyd 1953 na de couple get dema first kiddie, Andrew. Na Nyerere cam be increasingly involved insyd politics; insyd April 1953, na dem elect am presido of de Tanganyika African Association (TAA). [[File:Portrait_Gandhi.jpg|right|thumb|Insyd make he dey campaign for Tanganyikan independence wey he use non-violent methods, na Nyerere be inspired by de example of Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi.]] On 7 July 1954 Nyerere, wey be assisted by Oscar Kambona, transform de TAA into a new political party, de Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). === Touring Tanganyika: 1955–1959 === Na Nyerere return to Dar es Salaam insyd October 1955. From then til na Tanzania secure independence, na he tour de country almost continuously, often insyd TANU ein Land Rover. Na de British colonial Governor of Tanganyika, Edward Twining, dislike Nyerere, wey he dey regard am as a racialist wey na he want to impose indigenous domination over de European den South Asian minorities. Insyd December 1955, na Twining establish de "multi-racial" United Tanganyika Party (UTP) make he combat TANU ein African nationalist message. Na Nyerere nevertheless stipulate say "we dey fight against colonialism, no be against de whites". Na he befriend members of de white minority, such as Lady Marion Chesham, a U.S.-born widow of a British farmer, wey serve as a liaison between TANU den Twining ein government. A 1958 editorial insyd de TANU newsletter ''Sauti ya Tanu'' (Voice of TANU) wey na e be written by Nyerere call on de party ein members make dem avoid participating insyd violence. Na e sanso criticise two of de country ein district commissioners, wey dey accuse one of trying make e undermine TANU den anoda of putting a chief on trial for "cooked-up reasons". In response, na de government file three counts of criminal libel. Na de trial take almost three months. Na dem find Nyerere guilty, wey de judge dey stipulate dat he either fi bia a £150 fine anaa go to prison for six months; na he choose de former. === TANU insyd government: 1959–1961 === [[File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-166-21.jpg|right|thumb|Nyerere dey campaign give Tanganyikan independence insyd March 1961]] Insyd March 1959, na de new British Governor of Tanganyika, Richard Turnbull, give TANU five of de twelve ministerial posts available insyd de colony ein government. Na Turnbull be prepared make he work for a peaceful transition to independence. Insys 1959, Nyerere visit Edinburgh. Insyd 1960, na he attend a conference of independent African states insyd Addis Ababa, [[Ethiopia]], at wich na he present a paper wey dey call for de formation of an East African Federation. Na he suggest say Tanganyika fi delay ein attainment of independence from de British Empire til na neighbouring Kenya den Uganda fi able to do de same. Insyd ein view, na e go be much easier for de three countries make dem unite at de same point as independence dan after am, for beyond dat point na dema respective governments fi feel say na dem dey lose sovereignty thru unification. Na chaw senior TANU members oppose de idea of delaying Tanganyikan independence; na de party dey grow, den as of 1960 e get over a million members. == Premiership den Presidency of Tanganyika == === Premiership of Tanganyika: 1961–1962 === [[File:Julius_Nyerere_cropped.jpg|right|thumb|Nyerere as leader of de Legislative Council]] On 9 December 1961, na Tanganyika gain independence, an event dem mark by a ceremony at National Stadium. Na dem present alaw was soon to de Assembly wey go restrict citizenship to indigenous Africans; na Nyerere speak out against de bill, dey compare ein racialism to de ideas of Adolf Hitler den Hendrik Verwoerd, wey na he threaten he go resign if dem pass am. Six weeks after independence, insyd January 1962 Nyerere resign as prime minister, intent on make he dey focus on restructuring TANU den make he try to "work out wona own pattern of democracy". Na he retreat to make he cam turn a parliamentary back bencher, na he appoint close political ally Rashidi Kawawa as de new prime minister. Na he tour de country, dey give speeches insyd towns den villages insyd wich na he emphasise de need for self-reliance den hard work. Insyd 1962, na ein ''alma mater'' at Edinburgh award Nyerere plus a Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws. === Presidency of Tanganyika: 1962–1964 === On 9 December 1962, a year after independence, na Tanganyika cam be a republic. Na Nyerere move into de State House insyd Dar es Salaam, de former official residence of British governors. Na Nyerere dislike life insyd de building, buh na he remain der til 1966. Na Nyerere appoint Kawawa ein vice pee. Insyd 1963, na he put ein name forward make he be Rector of Edinburgh University, wey he vow to travel go Scotland wenever dem need am; na position instead go to de actor James Robertson Justice. Na he male official visits to West Germany, de [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Algeria]], Scandinavia, [[Guinea]], den [[Nigeria]]. Insyd de U.S. na he meet Presido John F. Kennedy wey although na dem personally like each oda, he fail make he convince Kennedy to toughen ein stance on apartheid South Africa. ==== Facing mutiny ==== [[File:Julius_Nyerere_1977.jpg|thumb|Julius Nyerere, 1977]] Insys January 1964, na Nyerere end affirmative action hiring for de civil service. He dey believe na dem redress de colonial imbalance, he state: "e go be wrong for we make we continue to distinguish between Tanganyikan citizens on any grounds oda dan those of character den ability to do specific tasks". Na chaw trade unionists denounce de discontinuation of de policy wey na e prove de catalyst give an army mutiny. On 20 January, na a small group of soldiers insyd de First Battalion wey dey call demaselves de Army Night Freedom Fighters launch an uprising, wey dey demand de dismissal of dema white officers den a pay rise. Na de mutineers lef de Colito Barracks wey na dem enter Dar es Salaam, wer dem seize de State House. Na Nyerere narrowly escape, wey he hide insyd a Roman Catholic mission for two days. Na de mutineers capture senior government figure Oscar Kambona, wey dem force am make he dismiss all white officers den appoint de indigenous Elisha Kavana as head of de Tanganyika Rifles. De Second Battalion, base insyd Tabora, sanso mutineed, wey Kambona accede to dema demands make dem appoint de indigenous Mrisho Sarakikya as dema battalion leader. Na he agree to chaw of dema demands, Kambona convince de First Battalion mutineers make dem return to dema barracks. Na similar yet smaller mutinies break out insyd Kenya den Uganda, wey de governments of both call for British military assistance in make dem suppress de uprisings. === Read further === * {{cite journal |last=Becker |first=Felicitas |year=2013 |title=Remembering Nyerere: Political Rhetoric and Dissent in Contemporary Tanzania |url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8553956 |journal=African Affairs |volume=112 |issue=447 |pages=238–261 |doi=10.1093/afraf/adt019 |issn=0001-9909 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1854/LU-8553956}} * {{cite journal |last=Lal |first=Priya |year=2015 |title=African Socialism and the Limits of Global Familyhood: Tanzania and the New International Economic Order in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=Humanity |volume=6 |pages=17–31 |doi=10.1353/hum.2015.0011 |issn=2151-4364 |s2cid=145718883 |number=1}} * {{cite book|last=Lal|first=Priya|title=African Socialism in Postcolonial Tanzania: Between the Village and the World|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1107104525|location=Cambridge}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mesaki |first1=Simeon |last2=Malipula |first2=Mrisho |year=2011 |title=Julius Nyerere's Influence and Legacy: From a Proponent of Familyhood to a Candidate for Sainthood |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/55889443.pdf |journal=International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |issn=2006-988X |s2cid=55279650 |hdl=1854/LU-6884875}} * {{cite journal |last=Metz |first=Steven |year=1982 |title=In Lieu of Orthodoxy: The Socialist Theories of Nkrumah and Nyerere |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=377–392 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00056883 |issn=0022-278X |s2cid=154691605}} * {{cite journal |last=Mhina |first=Mary Ann |year=2014 |title=The Poetry of an Orphaned Nation: Newspaper Poetry and the Death of Nyerere |journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=497–514 |doi=10.1080/17531055.2014.917857 |issn=1753-1055 |s2cid=146692317}} * {{cite journal |last=Mulenga |first=Derek C. |year=2001 |title=Mwalimu Julius Nyerere: A Critical Review of his Contributions to Adult Education and Postcolonialism |journal=International Journal of Lifelong Education |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=446–470 |doi=10.1080/02601370110088436 |issn=0260-1370 |s2cid=143740319}} * {{cite journal |last=Olden |first=Anthony |year=2005 |title="For Poor Nations a Library Service Is Vital": Establishing a National Public Library Service in Tanzania in the 1960s |url=https://repository.uwl.ac.uk/id/eprint/308/1/For_Poor_Nations_a_Library_Service_Is_Vi.pdf |journal=The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy |volume=75 |pages=421–445 |doi=10.1086/502785 |issn=0024-2519 |jstor=10.1086/502785 |s2cid=145347406 |number=4}} * {{cite journal |last=Otunnu |first=Ogenga |year=2015 |title=Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere's Philosophy, Contribution, and Legacies |journal=African Identities |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=18–33 |doi=10.1080/14725843.2014.961278 |s2cid=143172779}} * {{cite journal |last=Pallotti |first=Arrigo |year=2009 |title=Post-Colonial Nation-building and Southern African Liberation: Tanzania and the Break of Diplomatic Relations with the United Kingdom, 1965–1968 |journal=African Historical Review |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=60–84 |doi=10.1080/17532521003607393 |s2cid=143779342}} * {{cite journal |last=Pratt |first=Cranford |year=1999 |title=Julius Nyerere: Reflections on the Legacy of his Socialism |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=136–152 |doi=10.1080/00083968.1999.10751158}} * {{cite journal |last=Saul |first=John S. |year=2012 |title=Tanzania Fifty Years On (1961–2011): Rethinking Ujamaa, Nyerere and Socialism in Africa |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=39 |issue=131 |pages=117–125 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2012.662386 |s2cid=153731391 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2012.662386}} * {{cite journal |last=Schneider |first=Leander |year=2004 |title=Freedom and Unfreedom in Rural Development: Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa Vijijini, and Villagization |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=344–392 |doi=10.1080/00083968.2004.10751289 |s2cid=142816949}} * {{cite journal |last=Spalding |first=Nancy |year=1996 |title=The Tanzanian Peasant and Ujamaa: A Study in Contradictions |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=89–108 |doi=10.1080/01436599650035798}} * {{cite journal |last=Žák |first=Tomáš František |year=2016 |title=Applying the Weapon of Theory: Comparing the Philosophy of Julius Kambarage Nyerere and Kwame Nkrumah |journal=Journal of African Cultural Studies |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=147–160 |doi=10.1080/13696815.2015.1053798 |s2cid=146709996}} == External links == {{Sister project links|wikt=no|b=no|n=no|s=Author:Julius Kambarage Nyerere|v=no|voy=no|species=no|d=Q186525|display=Julius Nyerere}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20060911223145/http://www.southcentre.org/mwalimu/ SouthCentre Nyerere Memorial Site] **[https://web.archive.org/web/20011225222030/http://www.southcentre.org/mwalimu/speeches/written/written.htm Mwalimu Neyerere Speeches] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20051120184754/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/people/nyerere/newsart.html Nyerere Obituary] from the African National Congress *[https://web.archive.org/web/20061019131749/http://www.africasummit.org/about/nyererefellowship.html Julius Nyerere Fellowship] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nyerere, Julius}} [[Category:Julius Nyerere| ]] [[Category:1922 births]] [[Category:1999 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Tanzanian people]] [[Category:People wey komot Mara Region]] [[Category:Tanganyika African National Union politicians]] [[Category:Chama Cha Mapinduzi politicians]] [[Category:Prime ministers of Tanganyika]] [[Category:Heads of state of Tanganyika]] [[Category:Presidents of Tanzania]] [[Category:Butiama]] [[Category:Tabora Boys Secondary School alumni]] [[Category:Makerere University alumni]] [[Category:Alumni of de University of Edinburgh]] [[Category:Recipients of de Gandhi Peace Prize]] [[Category:Recipients of de Eduardo Mondlane Order]] [[Category:Recipients of de Lenin Peace Prize]] [[Category:Deaths from leukemia insyd England]] [[Category:Tanzanian Roman Catholics]] [[Category:20th-century venerated Christians]] [[Category:Tanzanian Christian socialists]] [[Category:Tanzanian Servants of God]] [[Category:Tanzanian non-fiction writers]] [[Category:Tanzanian pan-Africanists]] [[Category:Tanzanian translators]] [[Category:Translators from English]] [[Category:Translators to Swahili]] [[Category:Anti-imperialists]] [[Category:Recipients of de Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo]] [[Category:20th-century translators]] [[Category:Catholic socialists]] [[Category:Tanzanian expatriates insyd Uganda]] [[Category:Tanzanian expatriates insyd de United Kingdom]] [[Category:International Simón Bolívar Prize recipients]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Nansen Refugee Award laureates]] [[Category:World Constitutional Convention call signatories]] lwm8754w32n8q8e3r3e5vqn0hil3d5s 0 16372 63638 63291 2025-06-16T22:46:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63638 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups such as de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] icthb6qs9xzbzo41y6rdq7hhvqrye5h 63640 63638 2025-06-16T22:47:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63640 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups such as de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] 76mmucj9ggnjj8hd0se240n0q1h94ai 63642 63640 2025-06-16T22:47:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63642 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups such as de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage. Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] c764o0jhzb8rxk3opzor72xdty94tp5 63643 63642 2025-06-16T22:48:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63643 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups such as de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage. Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, it sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] szofxeytzne26683m78lza63g78izb3 63644 63643 2025-06-16T22:48:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63644 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups such as de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage. Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, it sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] tp9hjw8k9wgz4iz2nbdgci9u50c42dr 63645 63644 2025-06-16T22:49:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63645 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups such as de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, it sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] 9jkmgu9jmho03u6cp4lmi5ucw9yc2fl 63648 63645 2025-06-16T22:58:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63648 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] ahmhkgpy9jzglduz1lnkcl2jqr8rsxj 63649 63648 2025-06-16T22:58:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63649 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] 6rgttaky41usn66kesdnl2gm1lgo59q 63650 63649 2025-06-16T22:59:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63650 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America. According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] fujy9a35lcgikkdu6cswsnhbct5chw4 63652 63650 2025-06-16T23:01:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63652 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] kgrxyavx5n16thunxbvu0uvbuv2wl50 63653 63652 2025-06-16T23:04:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63653 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth. . == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] 930kfypqfzxk3j9r4x75lhz4xllh0sn 63654 63653 2025-06-16T23:05:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63654 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth. Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] dh8fn9naon4mq8vw1tfnzdvf2boei2p 63656 63654 2025-06-16T23:06:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63656 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth. Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction. Therefore, many scholars den activists call give reparations to eliminate "racial disparities insyd wealth, income, education, health, sentencing den incarceration, political participation, den subsequent opportunities to engage insyd American political den social life". == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] r9afyucr9wdjtsan0vxc6auyzvlsfw8 63658 63656 2025-06-16T23:08:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63658 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth.<ref>Ananda S. Osel, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215090041/http://dailyuw.com/2008/8/17/us-apology-slavery-apparently-not-front-page-news/ U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News] ''The Humanist'', Nov/Dec 2008 (American Humanist Association)</ref> Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction. Therefore, many scholars den activists call give reparations to eliminate "racial disparities insyd wealth, income, education, health, sentencing den incarceration, political participation, den subsequent opportunities to engage insyd American political den social life". == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] pa80ibpmkinpo8qv69qns43rgwjn0gs 63661 63658 2025-06-16T23:11:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63661 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref>Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth.<ref>Ananda S. Osel, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215090041/http://dailyuw.com/2008/8/17/us-apology-slavery-apparently-not-front-page-news/ U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News] ''The Humanist'', Nov/Dec 2008 (American Humanist Association)</ref> Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction.<ref>Stevens, Robert (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BE1gAwAAQBAJ&dq=Not+only+did+the+freedmen+not+receive+a+share+of+these+profits%2C+but+they+were+stripped+of+the+small+amounts+of+compensation+paid+to+some+of+them+during+Reconstruction.&pg=PA20 The Bracken Rangers: Company K, 28th Regiment, 1st Indiana Cavalry, and Essays on the American Civil War]''. Lulu.com. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1257851256</bdi> – via Google Books.</ref> Therefore, many scholars den activists call give reparations to eliminate "racial disparities insyd wealth, income, education, health, sentencing den incarceration, political participation, den subsequent opportunities to engage insyd American political den social life". == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] 4xjpmwri91c8ppnn7cpigk33si41tpy 63662 63661 2025-06-16T23:12:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63662 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref name=":6">Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth.<ref>Ananda S. Osel, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215090041/http://dailyuw.com/2008/8/17/us-apology-slavery-apparently-not-front-page-news/ U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News] ''The Humanist'', Nov/Dec 2008 (American Humanist Association)</ref> Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction.<ref>Stevens, Robert (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BE1gAwAAQBAJ&dq=Not+only+did+the+freedmen+not+receive+a+share+of+these+profits%2C+but+they+were+stripped+of+the+small+amounts+of+compensation+paid+to+some+of+them+during+Reconstruction.&pg=PA20 The Bracken Rangers: Company K, 28th Regiment, 1st Indiana Cavalry, and Essays on the American Civil War]''. Lulu.com. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1257851256</bdi> – via Google Books.</ref> Therefore, many scholars den activists call give reparations to eliminate "racial disparities insyd wealth, income, education, health, sentencing den incarceration, political participation, den subsequent opportunities to engage insyd American political den social life".<ref name=":6" /> == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] e8blse7vki2yy2of12ufo7pvwttv220 63664 63662 2025-06-16T23:17:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63664 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref name=":6">Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth.<ref>Ananda S. Osel, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215090041/http://dailyuw.com/2008/8/17/us-apology-slavery-apparently-not-front-page-news/ U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News] ''The Humanist'', Nov/Dec 2008 (American Humanist Association)</ref> Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction.<ref>Stevens, Robert (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BE1gAwAAQBAJ&dq=Not+only+did+the+freedmen+not+receive+a+share+of+these+profits%2C+but+they+were+stripped+of+the+small+amounts+of+compensation+paid+to+some+of+them+during+Reconstruction.&pg=PA20 The Bracken Rangers: Company K, 28th Regiment, 1st Indiana Cavalry, and Essays on the American Civil War]''. Lulu.com. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1257851256</bdi> – via Google Books.</ref> Therefore, many scholars den activists call give reparations to eliminate "racial disparities insyd wealth, income, education, health, sentencing den incarceration, political participation, den subsequent opportunities to engage insyd American political den social life".<ref name=":6" /> === Health care === Insyd 2019, VICE magazine published an article dat argued racial health disparities, from slavery through Jim Crow until today, have cost Black Americans a significant amount of money insyd health care expenses den lost wages, den should be paid back. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] 2gy66ridrgybkld2vuol4gvtutbf1yb 63665 63664 2025-06-16T23:18:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63665 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref name=":6">Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth.<ref>Ananda S. Osel, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215090041/http://dailyuw.com/2008/8/17/us-apology-slavery-apparently-not-front-page-news/ U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News] ''The Humanist'', Nov/Dec 2008 (American Humanist Association)</ref> Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction.<ref>Stevens, Robert (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BE1gAwAAQBAJ&dq=Not+only+did+the+freedmen+not+receive+a+share+of+these+profits%2C+but+they+were+stripped+of+the+small+amounts+of+compensation+paid+to+some+of+them+during+Reconstruction.&pg=PA20 The Bracken Rangers: Company K, 28th Regiment, 1st Indiana Cavalry, and Essays on the American Civil War]''. Lulu.com. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1257851256</bdi> – via Google Books.</ref> Therefore, many scholars den activists call give reparations to eliminate "racial disparities insyd wealth, income, education, health, sentencing den incarceration, political participation, den subsequent opportunities to engage insyd American political den social life".<ref name=":6" /> === Health care === Insyd 2019, VICE magazine published an article dat argued racial health disparities, from slavery through Jim Crow until today, have cost Black Americans a significant amount of money insyd health care expenses den lost wages, den should be paid back. Ray den Perry state insyd a Brookings article dat de lack of a social safety net den de wealth gap are particularly highlighted during de COVID-19 pandemic. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] 1nno4uh47djcnwwfa2s5m6j5rddpdcp 63666 63665 2025-06-16T23:18:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63666 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref name=":6">Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth.<ref>Ananda S. Osel, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215090041/http://dailyuw.com/2008/8/17/us-apology-slavery-apparently-not-front-page-news/ U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News] ''The Humanist'', Nov/Dec 2008 (American Humanist Association)</ref> Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction.<ref>Stevens, Robert (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BE1gAwAAQBAJ&dq=Not+only+did+the+freedmen+not+receive+a+share+of+these+profits%2C+but+they+were+stripped+of+the+small+amounts+of+compensation+paid+to+some+of+them+during+Reconstruction.&pg=PA20 The Bracken Rangers: Company K, 28th Regiment, 1st Indiana Cavalry, and Essays on the American Civil War]''. Lulu.com. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1257851256</bdi> – via Google Books.</ref> Therefore, many scholars den activists call give reparations to eliminate "racial disparities insyd wealth, income, education, health, sentencing den incarceration, political participation, den subsequent opportunities to engage insyd American political den social life".<ref name=":6" /> === Health care === Insyd 2019, VICE magazine published an article dat argued racial health disparities, from slavery through Jim Crow until today, have cost Black Americans a significant amount of money insyd health care expenses den lost wages, den should be paid back. Ray den Perry state insyd a Brookings article dat de lack of a social safety net den de wealth gap are particularly highlighted during de COVID-19 pandemic. Dem explain dat “disparities insyd access to health care along plus inequities insyd economic policies combine,” making dis inequality a life anaa death situation give black Americans. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] ke8fe4x5nkx6j3j0ibwfoi7ne6v17pq 63667 63666 2025-06-16T23:19:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63667 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref name=":6">Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth.<ref>Ananda S. Osel, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215090041/http://dailyuw.com/2008/8/17/us-apology-slavery-apparently-not-front-page-news/ U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News] ''The Humanist'', Nov/Dec 2008 (American Humanist Association)</ref> Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction.<ref>Stevens, Robert (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BE1gAwAAQBAJ&dq=Not+only+did+the+freedmen+not+receive+a+share+of+these+profits%2C+but+they+were+stripped+of+the+small+amounts+of+compensation+paid+to+some+of+them+during+Reconstruction.&pg=PA20 The Bracken Rangers: Company K, 28th Regiment, 1st Indiana Cavalry, and Essays on the American Civil War]''. Lulu.com. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1257851256</bdi> – via Google Books.</ref> Therefore, many scholars den activists call give reparations to eliminate "racial disparities insyd wealth, income, education, health, sentencing den incarceration, political participation, den subsequent opportunities to engage insyd American political den social life".<ref name=":6" /> === Health care === Insyd 2019, VICE magazine published an article dat argued racial health disparities, from slavery through Jim Crow until today, have cost Black Americans a significant amount of money insyd health care expenses den lost wages, den should be paid back.<ref>Jason Silverstein (June 19, 2019). [https://www.vice.com/en/article/the-healthcare-case-for-reparations-hr40/ "Being Black in America Is a Health Risk. It's Time for Reparations"]. ''Vice''.</ref> Ray den Perry state insyd a Brookings article dat de lack of a social safety net den de wealth gap are particularly highlighted during de COVID-19 pandemic. Dem explain dat “disparities insyd access to health care along plus inequities insyd economic policies combine,” making dis inequality a life anaa death situation give black Americans. == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] nwo6nhjz6vjdr5rk94ea00hwefz6zul 63671 63667 2025-06-16T23:23:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 63671 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.<ref>Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations"]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":0">Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). [https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations"]. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave [[Belinda Royall]] insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed.<ref>[https://royallhouse.org/why-was-belindas-petition-approved/ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?"]. ''The Royall House and Slave Quarters''. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</ref> De 1865 [[:en:Special_Field_Orders_No._15|Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule")]] be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.<ref name=":6">Darity, William (2020). ''From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1469654973|978-1469654973]]</bdi>.</ref> However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners. Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.<ref>Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). [https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18246741/reparations-democrats-2020-inequality-warren-harris-castro "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained"]. Vox.</ref> De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?"]. ''The Guardian''. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. <q>Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.</q></ref> Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.<ref>Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer"]. ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section"]. June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref name=":5">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"]. ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>Marable, Manning. [https://rethinkingschools.org/articles/racism-and-reparations/ "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation"]. Retrieved September 18, 2020.</ref> De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.<ref>Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)</ref><ref name=":2">Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/01/31/slavery-reparations-seem-impossible-many-places-theyre-already-happening/?arc404=true "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone)<ref name=":0" />, den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). [https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered"]. ''WLOS''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,<ref>[https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america/ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism"]. ''Time''. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/28/redlining-was-banned-50-years-ago-its-still-hurting-minorities-today/ "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). [https://ncrc.org/holc/ "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). [http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 "The school to prison pipeline, explained"]. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System"]. April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.<ref>Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). [https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/09/slavery-prison-system-170901082522072.html "Slavery in the US prison system"]. ''Al Jazeera''. Retrieved July 12, 2020.</ref> == U.S. ein historical context == '''Insyd colonial times''' De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.<ref>Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). ''[https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice]'' (PDF). Brown University. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301709830 301709830].</ref> During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.<ref>Heller, Mike (March 2019). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2397&context=qrt "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]. ''George Fox University''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref><ref>Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). [[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist"]]. ''Journal of American History''. '''105''' (3): 660–661. [[Doi (identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310|10.1093/jahist/jay310]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723 0021-8723].</ref><ref>[https://hsp.org/calendar/fearless-and-forgotten-warner-mifflin-quaker-abolitionist-new-nation "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation"]. ''Historical Society of Pennsylvania''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".<ref>Nash, Gary B. (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIIuDwAAQBAJ Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist]''. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-0812294361</bdi>.</ref> === Before de Civil War === Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.<ref name=":3">Redpath, James (1859). ''[[iarchive:rovingeditorort00redpgoog/page/n10/mode/2up|The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States]]''. New York: A. B. Burdick</ref> He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation".<ref name=":3" /> Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."<ref>Redpath, James (1860). ''[[iarchive:publiclifecaptj02redpgoog/page/n8/mode/2up|The public life of Capt. John Brown]]''. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.</ref> Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.<ref>McKivigan, John R. (2008). ''[[iarchive:forgottenfirebra00mcki/page/n5/mode/2up|Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America]]''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0801446733|978-0801446733]]</bdi>.</ref> === De Reconstruction period === De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA252324&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander]</ref> den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass. Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi. After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages. Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.<ref>McDaniel, W. Caleb. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/henrietta-wood-sued-reparations-won-180972845/ "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won"]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 6, 2019.</ref> ==== <big>Post-Reconstruction Era</big> ==== Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".<ref>Berry, Mary Frances (2005). ''[[iarchive:myfaceisblackist00berr/page/230|My Face Is Black Is True]]''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>1-4000-4003-5</bdi>.</ref> De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's. Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.<ref>Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). [https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople"]. ''Prologue Magazine''. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.</ref> '''<big>2020</big>''' De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.<ref>Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2019-02-27/2020-democrats-support-for-reparations-lacks-details "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details"]. ''US News''.</ref> Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.<ref>Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). [https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/ "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice"].</ref> Candidates dat endorsed de idea included: * Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,<ref>Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). [https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</ref> while speaking on de Karen Hunter show<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MEWUwiM3pz0 Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200108222825/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=335s&v=MEWUwiM3pz0&app=desktop Wayback Machine]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEWUwiM3pz0 "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?"] ''www.youtube.com''. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.</ref> * Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.<ref>Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). [https://www.ebony.com/news/dem-presidential-candidate-calls-100b-slavery-reparations/ "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations"]. ''Ebony''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2019/03/01/698916063/2020-democrats-wrestle-with-a-big-question-what-are-reparations "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?"]. ''NPR.org''. Retrieved May 2, 2019.</ref> * Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/40 "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. June 19, 2019.</ref> den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill.<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1083/cosponsors?q={%22search%22%3A%22S.+1083%22}&r=1&s=1 "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act"]. ''Congress.gov''. Retrieved July 12, 2019.</ref> Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.<ref>David Weigel (April 4, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/paloma/the-trailer/2019/04/04/the-trailer-in-the-sharpton-primary-democrats-put-civil-rights-and-reparations-at-center-stage/5ca518281b326b0f7f38f30f/?noredirect=on "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage"]. ''Washington Post''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did</q></ref> Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to ''U.S. News & World Report''.<ref>David Catanese (April 3, 2019). [https://www.usnews.com/news/the-run/articles/2019-04-03/at-al-sharptons-summit-beto-orourke-commits-to-reparations-bill?yptr=yahoo "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations"]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved April 6, 2019. <q>This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.</q></ref><ref>[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/4/beto-orourke-backs-reparations-commission/ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'"]. ''The Washington Times''.</ref><ref>Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). [https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/politics/texas/article/Beto-O-Rourke-joins-Juli-n-Castro-in-backing-13739541.php "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress"]. ''Houston Chronicle''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl1afoqSy7U "Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance"]. www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.</ref> == Proposals for reparations == === United States government === Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. ''Harper's Magazine'' estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".<ref>Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190904024117/https://nlpc.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Reparationsbook.pdf "The Case Against Slave Reparations"] (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.</ref> Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar. De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date".<ref>[http://peacemission.info/media/peace-stamps/?pid=91 "Peace Stamps"]. ''peacemission.info''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.<ref>Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). [https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010211/reparation11/us-slavery-reparations-hope-that-a-race-will-be-compensated-gains-momentum "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum"]. ''Seattle Times''. Retrieved November 10, 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,<ref>Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2750.cfm "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations"]. ''worldpress.org''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref><ref name=":4">Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317105452/http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/4449 "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance"]. ''The NewStandard''. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories. For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93059465 "Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows"]. NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.</ref> Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be: * Alabama – April 25, 2007<ref name="Blerd">{{Cite web|date=June 12, 2019|title=What States Have Apologized for Slavery|url=https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103084333/https://blerdplanet.com/what-states-have-apologized-for-slavery/|archive-date=3 Jan 2020|access-date=June 13, 2019|website=Blerd Planet}}</ref> * Connecticut * Delaware – February 11, 2016<ref name="Moyer">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/delaware-apologizes-for-slavery-and-jim-crow-no-reparations-forthcoming/|title=Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming.|last=Moyer|first=Justin|date=February 11, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 23, 2019}}</ref> * Florida – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * Maryland – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> * New Jersey – 2008<ref name="Blerd" /> * North Carolina – 2007<ref name="NSNBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17967662|title=North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery|date=April 5, 2007|publisher=NSNBC|access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> * Tennessee * Virginia – 2007<ref name="Blerd" /> === Private institutions === Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.<ref>Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHVLB7Xc9IC&dq=Farmer-Paellmann+Aetna+Restitution+Study+Group&pg=PA140 Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience]''. Visible Ink Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1-57859-260-9</bdi>.</ref> By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407<ref>28 U.S.C. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1407 § 1407]</ref> to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits ''plus'' prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit. On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal ''without'' prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.<ref>http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf</ref> Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first: <blockquote>If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.<ref>''In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig.'', 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).</ref></blockquote>Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table".<ref>[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20050712-120944-7745r.htm "NAACP to target private business"]. ''The Washington Times''. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SJ_response_to_the_report.pdf "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007"] (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.<ref>''[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice].''</ref> While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110428203113/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=899 "Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention"]. Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.</ref> Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421081801/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2653 Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", ''The NewStandard'', December 6, 2005.]</ref> Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.<ref name=":4" /> === Black Lives Matter === Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,<ref>Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). [https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/ "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes"]. Retrieved October 25, 2024.</ref> sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs.<ref>[https://populardemocracy.org/news-and-publications/black-lives-matter-coalition-makes-demands-campaign-heats "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up"]. ''The Center for Popular Democracy''. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.</ref> These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.<ref>Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). [https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-black-plague "The Black Plague"]. ''The New Yorker''. Retrieved March 17, 2021.</ref> == Arguments for Reparations == === Accumulated wealth === Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage.<ref name=":5" /> Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates. De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.<ref>Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/jaah/2018/103/1-2 "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans"]. ''The Journal of African American History''. '''103''' (1–2): 44–64. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/696364|10.1086/696364]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149992900 149992900].</ref> According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances. Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth.<ref>Ananda S. Osel, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215090041/http://dailyuw.com/2008/8/17/us-apology-slavery-apparently-not-front-page-news/ U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News] ''The Humanist'', Nov/Dec 2008 (American Humanist Association)</ref> Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction.<ref>Stevens, Robert (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BE1gAwAAQBAJ&dq=Not+only+did+the+freedmen+not+receive+a+share+of+these+profits%2C+but+they+were+stripped+of+the+small+amounts+of+compensation+paid+to+some+of+them+during+Reconstruction.&pg=PA20 The Bracken Rangers: Company K, 28th Regiment, 1st Indiana Cavalry, and Essays on the American Civil War]''. Lulu.com. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>978-1257851256</bdi> – via Google Books.</ref> Therefore, many scholars den activists call give reparations to eliminate "racial disparities insyd wealth, income, education, health, sentencing den incarceration, political participation, den subsequent opportunities to engage insyd American political den social life".<ref name=":6" /> === Health care === Insyd 2019, VICE magazine published an article dat argued racial health disparities, from slavery through Jim Crow until today, have cost Black Americans a significant amount of money insyd health care expenses den lost wages, den should be paid back.<ref>Jason Silverstein (June 19, 2019). [https://www.vice.com/en/article/the-healthcare-case-for-reparations-hr40/ "Being Black in America Is a Health Risk. It's Time for Reparations"]. ''Vice''.</ref> Ray den Perry state insyd a Brookings article dat de lack of a social safety net den de wealth gap are particularly highlighted during de COVID-19 pandemic. Dem explain dat “disparities insyd access to health care along plus inequities insyd economic policies combine,” making dis inequality a life anaa death situation give black Americans.<ref>Ray, Rashawn; Perry, Andre M. (April 15, 2020). [https://www.brookings.edu/policy2020/bigideas/why-we-need-reparations-for-black-americans/ "Why we need reparations for Black Americans"]. ''Brookings''. Retrieved October 30, 2020.</ref> == Legislation den oda actions == ===Federal government=== On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Medish |first1=Mark |last2=Lucich |first2=Daniel |date=2019-08-30 |title=Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/congress-must-officially-apologize-slavery-america-can-think-about-reparations-ncna1047561 |access-date=2023-10-21 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/18/senate.slavery/index.html |access-date=2023-10-21 }}</ref> ===States=== ====Legislation==== * '''California''' * '''Illinois''' * '''Iowa''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New York''' ====Apologies==== * '''Alabama''' * '''Connecticut''' * '''Delaware''' * '''Florida''' * '''Maryland''' * '''New Jersey''' * '''North Carolina''' * '''Tennessee''' * '''Virginia''' ===Counties=== * <div>'''Buncombe County, North Carolina'''</div> ===Cities=== * '''Chicago, Illinois''' * '''Evanston, Illinois''' * '''Asheville, North Carolina''' * '''San Francisco, California''' ===Organizations den institutions=== * '''Aetna''' * '''University of Alabama''' * '''Wachovia''' * '''JP Morgan Chase''' * '''Georgetown University''' * '''Princeton Theological Seminary''' * '''Virginia Theological Seminary''' ==References == <references /> == Read further == === 21st century === * {{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=978-1350010604|ref=none}} * Brophy, Alfred L. ''Reparations: Pro & Con''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. * Brooks, Roy L. ''Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * {{cite book|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p087875|title=Reparations and reparatory justice|date=2024|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252087875|editor-last1=Cha-Jua|editor-first1=Sundiata Keita|editor-last2=Berry|editor-first2=Mary Frances|editor-link2=|editor-last3=Franklin|editor-first3=V. P.}} * Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.99 The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.]" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 36 (2): 99–122. * {{cite book|last=DeGruy|first=Joy|title=Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing|date=2017|publisher=Joy Degruy Publications|isbn=978-0985217273|edition=Newly Revised and Updated|orig-date=2005}} * Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002. * Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. ''The Case against Slave Reparations''. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. * Hakim, Ida. ''The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations''. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. * Henry, Charles P. ''Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations''. New York: New York University Press, 2007. * {{cite news|title=The Debt|first=Matthew|last=Kauffman|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 29, 2002|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/257202079|via=newspapers.com|pages=192–197|ref=none}} * Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. ''Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. * Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. ''Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P * {{cite news|title=Taking Reparations Seriously|first=Noah|last=Millman|date=May 29, 2014|magazine=American Conservative|url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/millman/taking-reparations-seriously/|ref=none}} * {{cite news|title=Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?|first=Kim|last=Severson|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/04/dining/georgia-farm-slaves.html?action=click&module=card&pageType=theWeekenderLink}} * Torpey, John. ''Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. * University of Kansas. ''Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities''. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. * Walters, Ronald W. ''African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future''. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012. * Winbush, Raymond A. ''Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations''. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. === 19th century === * {{cite journal |last=Finkenbine |first=Roy E. |year=2005 |title=Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25081197 |journal=Massachusetts Historical Review |volume=7 |pages=105–119 |jstor=25081197 |accessdate=18 April 2022}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Reparations for slavery|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation|2005 United States court decision dismissing reparations lawsuits|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=rKkYifcUSVYC Reparations for Slavery: a Reader] – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141547/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_4_reparations.html Reparations, R.I.P., ''City Journal,'' Autumn 2008] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act] [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022124828/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:hr3745: Archived] October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. * [https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery] – NPR, August 27, 2001. * [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/banished/ Banished] site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) * {{cite web |title=Reparations Conference at TJSL |first=Kaimipono |last=Wenger |date=March 2, 2006 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |url=https://concurringopinions.com/archives/2006/03/reparations_con.html |publisher=Concurring Opinions |ref=none}} [[Category:Race-related controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:Political controversies insyd de United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Reparations for slavery insyd de United States| ]] ayd33xdkfpf54sz2vpsqbl1jez8yhfl 0 16836 63572 61756 2025-06-16T18:00:47Z DaSupremo 9 Undo revision [[Special:Diff/61756|61756]] by [[Special:Contributions/Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus|Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus]] ([[User talk:Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus|talk]]) 63572 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pan-Africanism''' be movement wey dey push make all African people, ones wey dey Africa den wey slave trade carry go abroad — unite and support each other. The idea start long time ago during the slave trade days, den e no dey focus only on Africans wey dey the continent, but also people wey get African blood for places like '''America''' den '''Europe'''.<ref>Austin, David (Fall 2007). "All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada". ''[[:en:Journal_of_African_American_History|Journal of African American History]]''. '''92''' (4): 516–539. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516|10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516]]. [[:en:S2CID_(identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:140509880 140509880].</ref><ref>Oloruntoba-Oju, Omotayo (December 2012). [https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean "Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama"]. ''J[[:en:Black_studies#Scholarly_and_academic_journals|ournal of Pan African Studies]]''. '''5''' (8): 190 ff.</ref> '''Pan-African ideas''' help push the formation of the '''Organisation of African Unity (OAU)''' for '''1963'''<ref>Abrahamsen, Rita (January 2020). "Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism". ''Review of International Studies''. '''46''' (1): 56–74. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/S0260210519000305|10.1017/S0260210519000305]]. [[:en:S2CID_(identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210466747 210466747].</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]).</ref>, wey now turn into the '''African Union (AU)'''. The '''AU Commission''' dey '''Addis Ababa''', Ethiopia, and the '''Pan-African Parliament''' dey '''Midrand''', near '''Johannesburg''' for South Africa.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism "Pan-Africanism"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''. Retrieved May 24, 2020.</ref> == Ein Overview == '''Pan-Africanism''' dey talk say make all African people come together den depend on wanna own body''',''' this idea na what dem dey call '''"collective self-reliance."'''<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref>'''Pan-Africanism''' no be just government level matter, e dey work for '''grassroots level''' too. Plenty big names dey support this movement. People like Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, Haile Selassie, Jomo Kenyatta, Edward Wilmot Blyden, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Patrice Lumumba, Julius Nyerere, Robert Sobukwe, Ahmed Sékou Touré, Kwame Nkrumah, King Sobhuza II, Robert Mugabe, Thomas Sankara, Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, Muammar Gaddafi, Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, plus grassroots leaders like '''Joseph Robert Love''', '''Marcus Garvey''', and '''Malcolm X'''. Some strong African scholars like '''W. E. B. Du Bois''', '''Anténor Firmin''' and other diaspora people too join the fight.<ref>[[:en:Toyin_Falola|Falola, Toyin]]; Essien, Kwame (2013). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity]''. [[:en:London|London]]: [[:en:Routledge|Routledge]]. pp. 71–72. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1135005191|978-1135005191]]</bdi>. Retrieved September 26, 2015.</ref><ref>Goebel, ''[http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor Anti-Imperial Metropolis]'', pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref>[[:en:John_Henrik_Clarke|Clarke, John Henrik]] (1988). "Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World". ''Présence Africaine''. '''145''' (145). [[:en:Présence_Africaine#Publishing_house|Editions Présence Africaine]]: 26–56. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.3917/presa.145.0026|10.3917/presa.145.0026]]. [[:en:JSTOR_(identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24351577 24351577].</ref> '''Pan-African people''' believe say if Africans unite, e go help de continent stand on e own feet den provide better life for all ein people. De main idea be say, if all Africans, both for Africa den outside, join hands, dem go get more power den voice worldwide. If this '''Pan-African dream''' come true, e go bring strong African power wey go force the world make dem share resources better. E go also bring one kind strong mental and political energy from Black people wey fit shake the way power dey work, especially for places like America.<ref>Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging]'', Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/9789956763016|9789956763016]]. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == Pan-African History == As de way of thinking dey, '''Pan-Africanism''' dey join all the history, culture, spirit, art, science, den deep wisdom wey Africans get from long time till now. E start for ancient days den e promote values wey come from African kingdoms den the fight against slavery''',''' racism, colonial rule, den even modern day neocolonialism.<ref>[[:en:Toyin_Falola|Falola, Toyin]]; Essien, Kwame (2013). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity]''. [[:en:London|London]]: [[:en:Routledge|Routledge]]. pp. 71–72. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1135005191|978-1135005191]]</bdi>. Retrieved September 26, 2015.</ref> == Women wey contribute for Pan-Africanism == '''Pan-Africanism''' get plenty strong African women wey don contribute big time since e start, even though many scholars den male Pan-Africanists no dey really give dem de respect or attention dem deserve.<ref>[https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ "Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany"]. Retrieved June 9, 2025.</ref> == References == 4xkel2cwwammu9amhh1sn5ii63secsg 63573 63572 2025-06-16T18:01:13Z DaSupremo 9 Protected "[[Pan-Africanism]]": Excessive vandalism ([Edit=Allow only autoconfirmed users] (indefinite) [Move am=Allow only autoconfirmed users] (indefinite)) 63572 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pan-Africanism''' be movement wey dey push make all African people, ones wey dey Africa den wey slave trade carry go abroad — unite and support each other. The idea start long time ago during the slave trade days, den e no dey focus only on Africans wey dey the continent, but also people wey get African blood for places like '''America''' den '''Europe'''.<ref>Austin, David (Fall 2007). "All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada". ''[[:en:Journal_of_African_American_History|Journal of African American History]]''. '''92''' (4): 516–539. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516|10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516]]. [[:en:S2CID_(identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:140509880 140509880].</ref><ref>Oloruntoba-Oju, Omotayo (December 2012). [https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean "Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama"]. ''J[[:en:Black_studies#Scholarly_and_academic_journals|ournal of Pan African Studies]]''. '''5''' (8): 190 ff.</ref> '''Pan-African ideas''' help push the formation of the '''Organisation of African Unity (OAU)''' for '''1963'''<ref>Abrahamsen, Rita (January 2020). "Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism". ''Review of International Studies''. '''46''' (1): 56–74. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/S0260210519000305|10.1017/S0260210519000305]]. [[:en:S2CID_(identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210466747 210466747].</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]).</ref>, wey now turn into the '''African Union (AU)'''. The '''AU Commission''' dey '''Addis Ababa''', Ethiopia, and the '''Pan-African Parliament''' dey '''Midrand''', near '''Johannesburg''' for South Africa.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism "Pan-Africanism"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''. Retrieved May 24, 2020.</ref> == Ein Overview == '''Pan-Africanism''' dey talk say make all African people come together den depend on wanna own body''',''' this idea na what dem dey call '''"collective self-reliance."'''<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref>'''Pan-Africanism''' no be just government level matter, e dey work for '''grassroots level''' too. Plenty big names dey support this movement. People like Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, Haile Selassie, Jomo Kenyatta, Edward Wilmot Blyden, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Patrice Lumumba, Julius Nyerere, Robert Sobukwe, Ahmed Sékou Touré, Kwame Nkrumah, King Sobhuza II, Robert Mugabe, Thomas Sankara, Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, Muammar Gaddafi, Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, plus grassroots leaders like '''Joseph Robert Love''', '''Marcus Garvey''', and '''Malcolm X'''. Some strong African scholars like '''W. E. B. Du Bois''', '''Anténor Firmin''' and other diaspora people too join the fight.<ref>[[:en:Toyin_Falola|Falola, Toyin]]; Essien, Kwame (2013). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity]''. [[:en:London|London]]: [[:en:Routledge|Routledge]]. pp. 71–72. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1135005191|978-1135005191]]</bdi>. Retrieved September 26, 2015.</ref><ref>Goebel, ''[http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor Anti-Imperial Metropolis]'', pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref>[[:en:John_Henrik_Clarke|Clarke, John Henrik]] (1988). "Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World". ''Présence Africaine''. '''145''' (145). [[:en:Présence_Africaine#Publishing_house|Editions Présence Africaine]]: 26–56. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.3917/presa.145.0026|10.3917/presa.145.0026]]. [[:en:JSTOR_(identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24351577 24351577].</ref> '''Pan-African people''' believe say if Africans unite, e go help de continent stand on e own feet den provide better life for all ein people. De main idea be say, if all Africans, both for Africa den outside, join hands, dem go get more power den voice worldwide. If this '''Pan-African dream''' come true, e go bring strong African power wey go force the world make dem share resources better. E go also bring one kind strong mental and political energy from Black people wey fit shake the way power dey work, especially for places like America.<ref>Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging]'', Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/9789956763016|9789956763016]]. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == Pan-African History == As de way of thinking dey, '''Pan-Africanism''' dey join all the history, culture, spirit, art, science, den deep wisdom wey Africans get from long time till now. E start for ancient days den e promote values wey come from African kingdoms den the fight against slavery''',''' racism, colonial rule, den even modern day neocolonialism.<ref>[[:en:Toyin_Falola|Falola, Toyin]]; Essien, Kwame (2013). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity]''. [[:en:London|London]]: [[:en:Routledge|Routledge]]. pp. 71–72. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1135005191|978-1135005191]]</bdi>. Retrieved September 26, 2015.</ref> == Women wey contribute for Pan-Africanism == '''Pan-Africanism''' get plenty strong African women wey don contribute big time since e start, even though many scholars den male Pan-Africanists no dey really give dem de respect or attention dem deserve.<ref>[https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ "Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany"]. Retrieved June 9, 2025.</ref> == References == 4xkel2cwwammu9amhh1sn5ii63secsg 63576 63573 2025-06-16T18:48:25Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63576 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Ein Overview == '''Pan-Africanism''' dey talk say make all African people come together den depend on wanna own body''',''' this idea na what dem dey call '''"collective self-reliance."'''<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> '''Pan-Africanism''' no be just government level matter, e dey work for '''grassroots level''' too. Plenty big names dey support this movement. People like Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, Haile Selassie, Jomo Kenyatta, Edward Wilmot Blyden, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Patrice Lumumba, Julius Nyerere, Robert Sobukwe, Ahmed Sékou Touré, Kwame Nkrumah, King Sobhuza II, Robert Mugabe, Thomas Sankara, Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, Muammar Gaddafi, Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, plus grassroots leaders like '''Joseph Robert Love''', '''Marcus Garvey''', and '''Malcolm X'''. Some strong African scholars like '''W. E. B. Du Bois''', '''Anténor Firmin''' and other diaspora people too join the fight.<ref>[[:en:Toyin_Falola|Falola, Toyin]]; Essien, Kwame (2013). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity]''. [[:en:London|London]]: [[:en:Routledge|Routledge]]. pp. 71–72. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1135005191|978-1135005191]]</bdi>. Retrieved September 26, 2015.</ref><ref>Goebel, ''[http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor Anti-Imperial Metropolis]'', pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref>[[:en:John_Henrik_Clarke|Clarke, John Henrik]] (1988). "Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World". ''Présence Africaine''. '''145''' (145). [[:en:Présence_Africaine#Publishing_house|Editions Présence Africaine]]: 26–56. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.3917/presa.145.0026|10.3917/presa.145.0026]]. [[:en:JSTOR_(identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24351577 24351577].</ref> '''Pan-African people''' believe say if Africans unite, e go help de continent stand on e own feet den provide better life for all ein people. De main idea be say, if all Africans, both for Africa den outside, join hands, dem go get more power den voice worldwide. If this '''Pan-African dream''' come true, e go bring strong African power wey go force the world make dem share resources better. E go also bring one kind strong mental and political energy from Black people wey fit shake the way power dey work, especially for places like America.<ref>Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging]'', Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/9789956763016|9789956763016]]. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == Pan-African History == As de way of thinking dey, '''Pan-Africanism''' dey join all the history, culture, spirit, art, science, den deep wisdom wey Africans get from long time till now. E start for ancient days den e promote values wey come from African kingdoms den the fight against slavery''',''' racism, colonial rule, den even modern day neocolonialism.<ref>[[:en:Toyin_Falola|Falola, Toyin]]; Essien, Kwame (2013). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity]''. [[:en:London|London]]: [[:en:Routledge|Routledge]]. pp. 71–72. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1135005191|978-1135005191]]</bdi>. Retrieved September 26, 2015.</ref> == Women wey contribute for Pan-Africanism == '''Pan-Africanism''' get plenty strong African women wey don contribute big time since e start, even though many scholars den male Pan-Africanists no dey really give dem de respect or attention dem deserve.<ref>[https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ "Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany"]. Retrieved June 9, 2025.</ref> == References == npmm4aq760dhki2ptp3854zsowf5148 63577 63576 2025-06-16T18:59:43Z DaSupremo 9 /* Ein Overview */ Improve article 63577 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Overview == Pan-Africanism dey stress de need for "collective self-reliance".<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> Pan-Africanism dey exist as a governmental den grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates dey include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, [[Haile Selassie]], [[Jomo Kenyatta]], Edward Wilmot Blyden, [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], [[Julius Nyerere]], Robert Sobukwe, [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]], [[Kwame Nkrumah]], King Sobhuza II, [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Thomas Sankara]], Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, grassroots organizers such as [[Joseph Robert Love]], [[Marcus Garvey]], den [[Malcolm X]], academics such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], Anténor Firmin den odas insyd de diaspora.<ref name="Pan-Africanism">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity|last2=Essien|first2=Kwame|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135005191|location=London|pages=71–72|access-date=September 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''], pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref name="Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |date=1988 |title=Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World |journal=Présence Africaine |publisher=Editions Présence Africaine |volume=145 |issue=145 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.3917/presa.145.0026 |jstor=24351577}}</ref> Na Pan-Africanists believe say solidarity go enable de continent make e fulfil ein potential to independently provide for all ein people. Crucially, an all-African alliance go empower African people globally. De realization of de pan-African objective go lead to "power consolidation insyd Africa", wich na "go compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy den political assertion&nbsp;... wey na go unsettle social den political (power) structures...insyd de Americas".<ref name="Agyeman [in] Mawere">Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 ''African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging''], Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. {{ISBN|9789956763016}}. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == Pan-African History == As de way of thinking dey, '''Pan-Africanism''' dey join all the history, culture, spirit, art, science, den deep wisdom wey Africans get from long time till now. E start for ancient days den e promote values wey come from African kingdoms den the fight against slavery''',''' racism, colonial rule, den even modern day neocolonialism.<ref>[[:en:Toyin_Falola|Falola, Toyin]]; Essien, Kwame (2013). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity]''. [[:en:London|London]]: [[:en:Routledge|Routledge]]. pp. 71–72. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1135005191|978-1135005191]]</bdi>. Retrieved September 26, 2015.</ref> == Women wey contribute for Pan-Africanism == '''Pan-Africanism''' get plenty strong African women wey don contribute big time since e start, even though many scholars den male Pan-Africanists no dey really give dem de respect or attention dem deserve.<ref>[https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ "Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany"]. Retrieved June 9, 2025.</ref> == References == 5oizej4efp4sov1ftk5rf5o7oki5vvz 63578 63577 2025-06-16T19:08:33Z DaSupremo 9 /* History */ Improve article 63578 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Overview == Pan-Africanism dey stress de need for "collective self-reliance".<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> Pan-Africanism dey exist as a governmental den grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates dey include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, [[Haile Selassie]], [[Jomo Kenyatta]], Edward Wilmot Blyden, [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], [[Julius Nyerere]], Robert Sobukwe, [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]], [[Kwame Nkrumah]], King Sobhuza II, [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Thomas Sankara]], Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, grassroots organizers such as [[Joseph Robert Love]], [[Marcus Garvey]], den [[Malcolm X]], academics such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], Anténor Firmin den odas insyd de diaspora.<ref name="Pan-Africanism">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity|last2=Essien|first2=Kwame|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135005191|location=London|pages=71–72|access-date=September 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''], pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref name="Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |date=1988 |title=Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World |journal=Présence Africaine |publisher=Editions Présence Africaine |volume=145 |issue=145 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.3917/presa.145.0026 |jstor=24351577}}</ref> Na Pan-Africanists believe say solidarity go enable de continent make e fulfil ein potential to independently provide for all ein people. Crucially, an all-African alliance go empower African people globally. De realization of de pan-African objective go lead to "power consolidation insyd Africa", wich na "go compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy den political assertion&nbsp;... wey na go unsettle social den political (power) structures...insyd de Americas".<ref name="Agyeman [in] Mawere">Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 ''African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging''], Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. {{ISBN|9789956763016}}. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == History == As a philosophy, pan-Africanism dey represent de aggregation of de historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, den philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to de present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system dey trace ein origins from ancient times, den dey promote values wey be de product of de African civilisations den de struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, den neocolonialism.<ref name="Pan-Africanism"/> Dey coincide plus chaw New World slave insurrections (hallmark by de [[Haitian Revolution]]), na de end of de 19th century birth an intercontinental pro-African political movement wey seek make e unify disparate campaigns insyd de goal to end oppression. Na e be diasporic Africans dema removal from de continent wey enable dem make dem view am as a whole.<ref>Reid, Richard; Parker, John (October 1, 2013), Parker, John; Reid, Richard (eds.), [https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28187/chapter-abstract/213093103?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false "Introduction African Histories: Past, Present, and Future"], ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History'', Oxford University Press, p.&nbsp;0, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957247-2|978-0-19-957247-2]]</bdi>, retrieved January 26, 2025</ref> == Women wey contribute for Pan-Africanism == '''Pan-Africanism''' get plenty strong African women wey don contribute big time since e start, even though many scholars den male Pan-Africanists no dey really give dem de respect or attention dem deserve.<ref>[https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ "Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany"]. Retrieved June 9, 2025.</ref> == References == maqix3e4b73evjq4jnk0ghi7hl0wghm 63579 63578 2025-06-16T19:21:40Z DaSupremo 9 /* Important women insyd pan-Africanism */ Improve article 63579 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Overview == Pan-Africanism dey stress de need for "collective self-reliance".<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> Pan-Africanism dey exist as a governmental den grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates dey include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, [[Haile Selassie]], [[Jomo Kenyatta]], Edward Wilmot Blyden, [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], [[Julius Nyerere]], Robert Sobukwe, [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]], [[Kwame Nkrumah]], King Sobhuza II, [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Thomas Sankara]], Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, grassroots organizers such as [[Joseph Robert Love]], [[Marcus Garvey]], den [[Malcolm X]], academics such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], Anténor Firmin den odas insyd de diaspora.<ref name="Pan-Africanism">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity|last2=Essien|first2=Kwame|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135005191|location=London|pages=71–72|access-date=September 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''], pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref name="Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |date=1988 |title=Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World |journal=Présence Africaine |publisher=Editions Présence Africaine |volume=145 |issue=145 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.3917/presa.145.0026 |jstor=24351577}}</ref> Na Pan-Africanists believe say solidarity go enable de continent make e fulfil ein potential to independently provide for all ein people. Crucially, an all-African alliance go empower African people globally. De realization of de pan-African objective go lead to "power consolidation insyd Africa", wich na "go compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy den political assertion&nbsp;... wey na go unsettle social den political (power) structures...insyd de Americas".<ref name="Agyeman [in] Mawere">Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 ''African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging''], Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. {{ISBN|9789956763016}}. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == History == As a philosophy, pan-Africanism dey represent de aggregation of de historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, den philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to de present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system dey trace ein origins from ancient times, den dey promote values wey be de product of de African civilisations den de struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, den neocolonialism.<ref name="Pan-Africanism"/> Dey coincide plus chaw New World slave insurrections (hallmark by de [[Haitian Revolution]]), na de end of de 19th century birth an intercontinental pro-African political movement wey seek make e unify disparate campaigns insyd de goal to end oppression. Na e be diasporic Africans dema removal from de continent wey enable dem make dem view am as a whole.<ref>Reid, Richard; Parker, John (October 1, 2013), Parker, John; Reid, Richard (eds.), [https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28187/chapter-abstract/213093103?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false "Introduction African Histories: Past, Present, and Future"], ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History'', Oxford University Press, p.&nbsp;0, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957247-2|978-0-19-957247-2]]</bdi>, retrieved January 26, 2025</ref> ==Important women insyd pan-Africanism== Na Pan-Africanism see de contribution of chaw female African activists thru out ein lifespan, despite de systemic lack of attention dem pay to dem by scholars den male pan-Africanist alike.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany |url=https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ |access-date=2025-06-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey, wey found de international newspaper ''Negro World.''<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Nangwaya|first1=Ajamu|date=May 26, 2016|title=Pan-Africanism, feminism, and finding missing Pan-Africanist women|url=https://www.pambazuka.org/pan-africanism/pan-africanism-feminism-and-finding-missing-pan-africanist-women|access-date=September 28, 2022|website=Pambazuka News|publisher=}}</ref> * Na Claudia Jones be anoda pan-Africanist. In order to fight against racism towards black people insyd Britain, na Jones set up de ''West Indian Gazette.''<ref name="auto" /> * Insyd de United States, na [[Queen Mother Moore|Audley Moore]] den Dara Abubakari play a vital role in developing Pan-African thought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farmer |first1=Ashley D. |date=2016 |title=Mothers of Pan-Africanism: Audley Moore and Dara Abubakari |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |journal=Women, Gender, and Families of Color |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=274–295 |doi=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |jstor=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |s2cid=157178972 |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 15, 2021}}</ref> * Peggy Antrobus * Na dem born Alice Victoria Alexander Kinloch insyd 1863 insyd Cape Town, South Africa, before na ein family move to Kimberley. * Na Jeanne Martin Cissé be instrumental insyd de independence of [[Guinea]]. * Na dem born [[Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti]] (FRK) insyd 1900 wey na she study insyd England insyd 1922.<ref name="Shonekan, Fela's Foundation, page 135">{{cite journal |last1=Shonekan |first1=Stephanie |date=Spring 2009 |title=Fela's Foundation: Examining the Revolutionary Songs of Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and the Abeokuta Market Women's Movement in 1940s Western Nigeria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20640673 |journal=Black Music Research Journal |volume=29 |issue=1 |page=135 |jstor=20640673 |access-date=November 16, 2021}}</ref> == References == gybg9whff8anxmmbl294nfdu9r68sws 63581 63579 2025-06-16T19:24:05Z DaSupremo 9 /* Political parties den organizations */ Improve article 63581 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Overview == Pan-Africanism dey stress de need for "collective self-reliance".<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> Pan-Africanism dey exist as a governmental den grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates dey include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, [[Haile Selassie]], [[Jomo Kenyatta]], Edward Wilmot Blyden, [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], [[Julius Nyerere]], Robert Sobukwe, [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]], [[Kwame Nkrumah]], King Sobhuza II, [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Thomas Sankara]], Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, grassroots organizers such as [[Joseph Robert Love]], [[Marcus Garvey]], den [[Malcolm X]], academics such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], Anténor Firmin den odas insyd de diaspora.<ref name="Pan-Africanism">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity|last2=Essien|first2=Kwame|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135005191|location=London|pages=71–72|access-date=September 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''], pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref name="Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |date=1988 |title=Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World |journal=Présence Africaine |publisher=Editions Présence Africaine |volume=145 |issue=145 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.3917/presa.145.0026 |jstor=24351577}}</ref> Na Pan-Africanists believe say solidarity go enable de continent make e fulfil ein potential to independently provide for all ein people. Crucially, an all-African alliance go empower African people globally. De realization of de pan-African objective go lead to "power consolidation insyd Africa", wich na "go compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy den political assertion&nbsp;... wey na go unsettle social den political (power) structures...insyd de Americas".<ref name="Agyeman [in] Mawere">Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 ''African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging''], Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. {{ISBN|9789956763016}}. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == History == As a philosophy, pan-Africanism dey represent de aggregation of de historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, den philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to de present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system dey trace ein origins from ancient times, den dey promote values wey be de product of de African civilisations den de struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, den neocolonialism.<ref name="Pan-Africanism"/> Dey coincide plus chaw New World slave insurrections (hallmark by de [[Haitian Revolution]]), na de end of de 19th century birth an intercontinental pro-African political movement wey seek make e unify disparate campaigns insyd de goal to end oppression. Na e be diasporic Africans dema removal from de continent wey enable dem make dem view am as a whole.<ref>Reid, Richard; Parker, John (October 1, 2013), Parker, John; Reid, Richard (eds.), [https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28187/chapter-abstract/213093103?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false "Introduction African Histories: Past, Present, and Future"], ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History'', Oxford University Press, p.&nbsp;0, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957247-2|978-0-19-957247-2]]</bdi>, retrieved January 26, 2025</ref> ==Important women insyd pan-Africanism== Na Pan-Africanism see de contribution of chaw female African activists thru out ein lifespan, despite de systemic lack of attention dem pay to dem by scholars den male pan-Africanist alike.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany |url=https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ |access-date=2025-06-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey, wey found de international newspaper ''Negro World.''<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Nangwaya|first1=Ajamu|date=May 26, 2016|title=Pan-Africanism, feminism, and finding missing Pan-Africanist women|url=https://www.pambazuka.org/pan-africanism/pan-africanism-feminism-and-finding-missing-pan-africanist-women|access-date=September 28, 2022|website=Pambazuka News|publisher=}}</ref> * Na Claudia Jones be anoda pan-Africanist. In order to fight against racism towards black people insyd Britain, na Jones set up de ''West Indian Gazette.''<ref name="auto" /> * Insyd de United States, na [[Queen Mother Moore|Audley Moore]] den Dara Abubakari play a vital role in developing Pan-African thought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farmer |first1=Ashley D. |date=2016 |title=Mothers of Pan-Africanism: Audley Moore and Dara Abubakari |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |journal=Women, Gender, and Families of Color |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=274–295 |doi=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |jstor=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |s2cid=157178972 |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 15, 2021}}</ref> * Peggy Antrobus * Na dem born Alice Victoria Alexander Kinloch insyd 1863 insyd Cape Town, South Africa, before na ein family move to Kimberley. * Na Jeanne Martin Cissé be instrumental insyd de independence of [[Guinea]]. * Na dem born [[Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti]] (FRK) insyd 1900 wey na she study insyd England insyd 1922.<ref name="Shonekan, Fela's Foundation, page 135">{{cite journal |last1=Shonekan |first1=Stephanie |date=Spring 2009 |title=Fela's Foundation: Examining the Revolutionary Songs of Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and the Abeokuta Market Women's Movement in 1940s Western Nigeria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20640673 |journal=Black Music Research Journal |volume=29 |issue=1 |page=135 |jstor=20640673 |access-date=November 16, 2021}}</ref> ==Political parties den organizations== ===Insyd Africa=== ==== Formal political bodies ==== * Organisation of African Unity, wey de [[African Union]] succeed am * Pan-African Parliament, [[African Union]] ====Political groups den organizations==== * African Unification Front * ''Rassemblement Démocratique Africain'', defunct * All-African People's Revolutionary Party * Pan-African Women's Organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100019754|title=Pan African Women's Organization &#124; UIA Yearbook Profile &#124; Union of International Associations}}</ref> * All Africa Conference of Churches (Kenya) * All-African Trade Union Federation, defunct * Convention People's Party (Ghana) * African National Congress ([[South Africa]]) == References == gelndcmppyo2xrm3j0nxfi6lkwgju3y 63582 63581 2025-06-16T19:25:21Z DaSupremo 9 /* Political parties den organizations */ Improve article 63582 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Overview == Pan-Africanism dey stress de need for "collective self-reliance".<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> Pan-Africanism dey exist as a governmental den grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates dey include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, [[Haile Selassie]], [[Jomo Kenyatta]], Edward Wilmot Blyden, [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], [[Julius Nyerere]], Robert Sobukwe, [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]], [[Kwame Nkrumah]], King Sobhuza II, [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Thomas Sankara]], Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, grassroots organizers such as [[Joseph Robert Love]], [[Marcus Garvey]], den [[Malcolm X]], academics such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], Anténor Firmin den odas insyd de diaspora.<ref name="Pan-Africanism">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity|last2=Essien|first2=Kwame|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135005191|location=London|pages=71–72|access-date=September 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''], pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref name="Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |date=1988 |title=Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World |journal=Présence Africaine |publisher=Editions Présence Africaine |volume=145 |issue=145 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.3917/presa.145.0026 |jstor=24351577}}</ref> Na Pan-Africanists believe say solidarity go enable de continent make e fulfil ein potential to independently provide for all ein people. Crucially, an all-African alliance go empower African people globally. De realization of de pan-African objective go lead to "power consolidation insyd Africa", wich na "go compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy den political assertion&nbsp;... wey na go unsettle social den political (power) structures...insyd de Americas".<ref name="Agyeman [in] Mawere">Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 ''African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging''], Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. {{ISBN|9789956763016}}. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == History == As a philosophy, pan-Africanism dey represent de aggregation of de historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, den philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to de present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system dey trace ein origins from ancient times, den dey promote values wey be de product of de African civilisations den de struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, den neocolonialism.<ref name="Pan-Africanism"/> Dey coincide plus chaw New World slave insurrections (hallmark by de [[Haitian Revolution]]), na de end of de 19th century birth an intercontinental pro-African political movement wey seek make e unify disparate campaigns insyd de goal to end oppression. Na e be diasporic Africans dema removal from de continent wey enable dem make dem view am as a whole.<ref>Reid, Richard; Parker, John (October 1, 2013), Parker, John; Reid, Richard (eds.), [https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28187/chapter-abstract/213093103?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false "Introduction African Histories: Past, Present, and Future"], ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History'', Oxford University Press, p.&nbsp;0, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957247-2|978-0-19-957247-2]]</bdi>, retrieved January 26, 2025</ref> ==Important women insyd pan-Africanism== Na Pan-Africanism see de contribution of chaw female African activists thru out ein lifespan, despite de systemic lack of attention dem pay to dem by scholars den male pan-Africanist alike.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany |url=https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ |access-date=2025-06-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey, wey found de international newspaper ''Negro World.''<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Nangwaya|first1=Ajamu|date=May 26, 2016|title=Pan-Africanism, feminism, and finding missing Pan-Africanist women|url=https://www.pambazuka.org/pan-africanism/pan-africanism-feminism-and-finding-missing-pan-africanist-women|access-date=September 28, 2022|website=Pambazuka News|publisher=}}</ref> * Na Claudia Jones be anoda pan-Africanist. In order to fight against racism towards black people insyd Britain, na Jones set up de ''West Indian Gazette.''<ref name="auto" /> * Insyd de United States, na [[Queen Mother Moore|Audley Moore]] den Dara Abubakari play a vital role in developing Pan-African thought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farmer |first1=Ashley D. |date=2016 |title=Mothers of Pan-Africanism: Audley Moore and Dara Abubakari |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |journal=Women, Gender, and Families of Color |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=274–295 |doi=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |jstor=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |s2cid=157178972 |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 15, 2021}}</ref> * Peggy Antrobus * Na dem born Alice Victoria Alexander Kinloch insyd 1863 insyd Cape Town, South Africa, before na ein family move to Kimberley. * Na Jeanne Martin Cissé be instrumental insyd de independence of [[Guinea]]. * Na dem born [[Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti]] (FRK) insyd 1900 wey na she study insyd England insyd 1922.<ref name="Shonekan, Fela's Foundation, page 135">{{cite journal |last1=Shonekan |first1=Stephanie |date=Spring 2009 |title=Fela's Foundation: Examining the Revolutionary Songs of Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and the Abeokuta Market Women's Movement in 1940s Western Nigeria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20640673 |journal=Black Music Research Journal |volume=29 |issue=1 |page=135 |jstor=20640673 |access-date=November 16, 2021}}</ref> ==Political parties den organizations== ===Insyd Africa=== ==== Formal political bodies ==== * Organisation of African Unity, wey de [[African Union]] succeed am * Pan-African Parliament, [[African Union]] ====Political groups den organizations==== * African Unification Front * ''Rassemblement Démocratique Africain'', defunct * All-African People's Revolutionary Party * Pan-African Women's Organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100019754|title=Pan African Women's Organization &#124; UIA Yearbook Profile &#124; Union of International Associations}}</ref> * All Africa Conference of Churches (Kenya) * All-African Trade Union Federation, defunct * Convention People's Party (Ghana) * African National Congress ([[South Africa]]) === Insyd de Caribbean === * De Pan-African Affairs Commission for Pan-African Affairs, a unit within de Office of de Prime Minister of Barbados.<ref name="Worrell2005">{{cite book|last=Worrell|first=Rodney|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkLVIdJ2g0C&pg=PA99|title=Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-century Pan-African Formations in Barbados|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9744934-6-6|pages=99–102}}</ref> * African Society for Cultural Relations with Independent Africa, defunct (Guyana) * Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (Antigua den Barbuda) * Clement Payne Movement (Barbados) * Marcus Garvey People's Political Party (Jamaica) * Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (Jamaica) == References == k9h9l6vplqw4yqtlij0huic35ev7hzx 63596 63582 2025-06-16T19:59:24Z DaSupremo 9 /* Political parties den organizations */ Improve article 63596 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Overview == Pan-Africanism dey stress de need for "collective self-reliance".<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> Pan-Africanism dey exist as a governmental den grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates dey include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, [[Haile Selassie]], [[Jomo Kenyatta]], Edward Wilmot Blyden, [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], [[Julius Nyerere]], Robert Sobukwe, [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]], [[Kwame Nkrumah]], King Sobhuza II, [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Thomas Sankara]], Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, grassroots organizers such as [[Joseph Robert Love]], [[Marcus Garvey]], den [[Malcolm X]], academics such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], Anténor Firmin den odas insyd de diaspora.<ref name="Pan-Africanism">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity|last2=Essien|first2=Kwame|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135005191|location=London|pages=71–72|access-date=September 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''], pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref name="Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |date=1988 |title=Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World |journal=Présence Africaine |publisher=Editions Présence Africaine |volume=145 |issue=145 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.3917/presa.145.0026 |jstor=24351577}}</ref> Na Pan-Africanists believe say solidarity go enable de continent make e fulfil ein potential to independently provide for all ein people. Crucially, an all-African alliance go empower African people globally. De realization of de pan-African objective go lead to "power consolidation insyd Africa", wich na "go compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy den political assertion&nbsp;... wey na go unsettle social den political (power) structures...insyd de Americas".<ref name="Agyeman [in] Mawere">Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 ''African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging''], Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. {{ISBN|9789956763016}}. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == History == As a philosophy, pan-Africanism dey represent de aggregation of de historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, den philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to de present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system dey trace ein origins from ancient times, den dey promote values wey be de product of de African civilisations den de struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, den neocolonialism.<ref name="Pan-Africanism"/> Dey coincide plus chaw New World slave insurrections (hallmark by de [[Haitian Revolution]]), na de end of de 19th century birth an intercontinental pro-African political movement wey seek make e unify disparate campaigns insyd de goal to end oppression. Na e be diasporic Africans dema removal from de continent wey enable dem make dem view am as a whole.<ref>Reid, Richard; Parker, John (October 1, 2013), Parker, John; Reid, Richard (eds.), [https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28187/chapter-abstract/213093103?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false "Introduction African Histories: Past, Present, and Future"], ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History'', Oxford University Press, p.&nbsp;0, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957247-2|978-0-19-957247-2]]</bdi>, retrieved January 26, 2025</ref> ==Important women insyd pan-Africanism== Na Pan-Africanism see de contribution of chaw female African activists thru out ein lifespan, despite de systemic lack of attention dem pay to dem by scholars den male pan-Africanist alike.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany |url=https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ |access-date=2025-06-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey, wey found de international newspaper ''Negro World.''<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Nangwaya|first1=Ajamu|date=May 26, 2016|title=Pan-Africanism, feminism, and finding missing Pan-Africanist women|url=https://www.pambazuka.org/pan-africanism/pan-africanism-feminism-and-finding-missing-pan-africanist-women|access-date=September 28, 2022|website=Pambazuka News|publisher=}}</ref> * Na Claudia Jones be anoda pan-Africanist. In order to fight against racism towards black people insyd Britain, na Jones set up de ''West Indian Gazette.''<ref name="auto" /> * Insyd de United States, na [[Queen Mother Moore|Audley Moore]] den Dara Abubakari play a vital role in developing Pan-African thought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farmer |first1=Ashley D. |date=2016 |title=Mothers of Pan-Africanism: Audley Moore and Dara Abubakari |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |journal=Women, Gender, and Families of Color |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=274–295 |doi=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |jstor=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |s2cid=157178972 |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 15, 2021}}</ref> * Peggy Antrobus * Na dem born Alice Victoria Alexander Kinloch insyd 1863 insyd Cape Town, South Africa, before na ein family move to Kimberley. * Na Jeanne Martin Cissé be instrumental insyd de independence of [[Guinea]]. * Na dem born [[Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti]] (FRK) insyd 1900 wey na she study insyd England insyd 1922.<ref name="Shonekan, Fela's Foundation, page 135">{{cite journal |last1=Shonekan |first1=Stephanie |date=Spring 2009 |title=Fela's Foundation: Examining the Revolutionary Songs of Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and the Abeokuta Market Women's Movement in 1940s Western Nigeria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20640673 |journal=Black Music Research Journal |volume=29 |issue=1 |page=135 |jstor=20640673 |access-date=November 16, 2021}}</ref> ==Political parties den organizations== ===Insyd Africa=== ==== Formal political bodies ==== * Organisation of African Unity, wey de [[African Union]] succeed am * Pan-African Parliament, [[African Union]] ====Political groups den organizations==== * African Unification Front * ''Rassemblement Démocratique Africain'', defunct * All-African People's Revolutionary Party * Pan-African Women's Organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100019754|title=Pan African Women's Organization &#124; UIA Yearbook Profile &#124; Union of International Associations}}</ref> * All Africa Conference of Churches (Kenya) * All-African Trade Union Federation, defunct * Convention People's Party (Ghana) * African National Congress ([[South Africa]]) === Insyd de Caribbean === * De Pan-African Affairs Commission for Pan-African Affairs, a unit within de Office of de Prime Minister of Barbados.<ref name="Worrell2005">{{cite book|last=Worrell|first=Rodney|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkLVIdJ2g0C&pg=PA99|title=Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-century Pan-African Formations in Barbados|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9744934-6-6|pages=99–102}}</ref> * African Society for Cultural Relations with Independent Africa, defunct (Guyana) * Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (Antigua den Barbuda) * Clement Payne Movement (Barbados) * Marcus Garvey People's Political Party (Jamaica) * Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (Jamaica) === Insyd Europe === * Pan-African Federation ([[United Kingdom]]), defunct * Pan-African Women's Association (Norway)<ref>[https://www.pawa.no/ Pan African Women Association.]</ref> === Insyd de United States === * De Council on African Affairs (CAA): dem found insyd 1937 by Max Yergan den Paul Robeson.<ref name="Duberman 296-297">Duberman, Martin. ''Paul Robeson'', 1989, pp. 296–97.</ref> * Na dem found de US Organization insyd 1965 by Maulana Karenga, dey follow de Watts riots.<ref name="The US Organization">{{cite web|title=Philosophy, Principles, and Program|url=http://www.us-organization.org/30th/ppp.html|website=The Organization Us}}</ref> * TransAfrica be a non-profit organization dem found insyd 1977 by Randall Robinson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TransAfrica|url=https://africanactivist.msu.edu/organization.php?name=TransAfrica|publisher=African Activist Archive}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == 5ipqpldot7983496o75j5vaoa5jvg2k 63599 63596 2025-06-16T20:01:40Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63599 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Overview == Pan-Africanism dey stress de need for "collective self-reliance".<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> Pan-Africanism dey exist as a governmental den grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates dey include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, [[Haile Selassie]], [[Jomo Kenyatta]], Edward Wilmot Blyden, [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], [[Julius Nyerere]], Robert Sobukwe, [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]], [[Kwame Nkrumah]], King Sobhuza II, [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Thomas Sankara]], Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, grassroots organizers such as [[Joseph Robert Love]], [[Marcus Garvey]], den [[Malcolm X]], academics such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], Anténor Firmin den odas insyd de diaspora.<ref name="Pan-Africanism">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity|last2=Essien|first2=Kwame|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135005191|location=London|pages=71–72|access-date=September 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''], pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref name="Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |date=1988 |title=Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World |journal=Présence Africaine |publisher=Editions Présence Africaine |volume=145 |issue=145 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.3917/presa.145.0026 |jstor=24351577}}</ref> Na Pan-Africanists believe say solidarity go enable de continent make e fulfil ein potential to independently provide for all ein people. Crucially, an all-African alliance go empower African people globally. De realization of de pan-African objective go lead to "power consolidation insyd Africa", wich na "go compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy den political assertion&nbsp;... wey na go unsettle social den political (power) structures...insyd de Americas".<ref name="Agyeman [in] Mawere">Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 ''African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging''], Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. {{ISBN|9789956763016}}. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == History == As a philosophy, pan-Africanism dey represent de aggregation of de historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, den philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to de present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system dey trace ein origins from ancient times, den dey promote values wey be de product of de African civilisations den de struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, den neocolonialism.<ref name="Pan-Africanism"/> Dey coincide plus chaw New World slave insurrections (hallmark by de [[Haitian Revolution]]), na de end of de 19th century birth an intercontinental pro-African political movement wey seek make e unify disparate campaigns insyd de goal to end oppression. Na e be diasporic Africans dema removal from de continent wey enable dem make dem view am as a whole.<ref>Reid, Richard; Parker, John (October 1, 2013), Parker, John; Reid, Richard (eds.), [https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28187/chapter-abstract/213093103?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false "Introduction African Histories: Past, Present, and Future"], ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History'', Oxford University Press, p.&nbsp;0, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957247-2|978-0-19-957247-2]]</bdi>, retrieved January 26, 2025</ref> ==Important women insyd pan-Africanism== Na Pan-Africanism see de contribution of chaw female African activists thru out ein lifespan, despite de systemic lack of attention dem pay to dem by scholars den male pan-Africanist alike.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany |url=https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ |access-date=2025-06-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey, wey found de international newspaper ''Negro World.''<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Nangwaya|first1=Ajamu|date=May 26, 2016|title=Pan-Africanism, feminism, and finding missing Pan-Africanist women|url=https://www.pambazuka.org/pan-africanism/pan-africanism-feminism-and-finding-missing-pan-africanist-women|access-date=September 28, 2022|website=Pambazuka News|publisher=}}</ref> * Na Claudia Jones be anoda pan-Africanist. In order to fight against racism towards black people insyd Britain, na Jones set up de ''West Indian Gazette.''<ref name="auto" /> * Insyd de United States, na [[Queen Mother Moore|Audley Moore]] den Dara Abubakari play a vital role in developing Pan-African thought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farmer |first1=Ashley D. |date=2016 |title=Mothers of Pan-Africanism: Audley Moore and Dara Abubakari |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |journal=Women, Gender, and Families of Color |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=274–295 |doi=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |jstor=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |s2cid=157178972 |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 15, 2021}}</ref> * Peggy Antrobus * Na dem born Alice Victoria Alexander Kinloch insyd 1863 insyd Cape Town, South Africa, before na ein family move to Kimberley. * Na Jeanne Martin Cissé be instrumental insyd de independence of [[Guinea]]. * Na dem born [[Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti]] (FRK) insyd 1900 wey na she study insyd England insyd 1922.<ref name="Shonekan, Fela's Foundation, page 135">{{cite journal |last1=Shonekan |first1=Stephanie |date=Spring 2009 |title=Fela's Foundation: Examining the Revolutionary Songs of Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and the Abeokuta Market Women's Movement in 1940s Western Nigeria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20640673 |journal=Black Music Research Journal |volume=29 |issue=1 |page=135 |jstor=20640673 |access-date=November 16, 2021}}</ref> ==Political parties den organizations== ===Insyd Africa=== ==== Formal political bodies ==== * Organisation of African Unity, wey de [[African Union]] succeed am * Pan-African Parliament, [[African Union]] ====Political groups den organizations==== * African Unification Front * ''Rassemblement Démocratique Africain'', defunct * All-African People's Revolutionary Party * Pan-African Women's Organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100019754|title=Pan African Women's Organization &#124; UIA Yearbook Profile &#124; Union of International Associations}}</ref> * All Africa Conference of Churches (Kenya) * All-African Trade Union Federation, defunct * Convention People's Party (Ghana) * African National Congress ([[South Africa]]) === Insyd de Caribbean === * De Pan-African Affairs Commission for Pan-African Affairs, a unit within de Office of de Prime Minister of Barbados.<ref name="Worrell2005">{{cite book|last=Worrell|first=Rodney|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkLVIdJ2g0C&pg=PA99|title=Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-century Pan-African Formations in Barbados|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9744934-6-6|pages=99–102}}</ref> * African Society for Cultural Relations with Independent Africa, defunct (Guyana) * Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (Antigua den Barbuda) * Clement Payne Movement (Barbados) * Marcus Garvey People's Political Party (Jamaica) * Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (Jamaica) === Insyd Europe === * Pan-African Federation ([[United Kingdom]]), defunct * Pan-African Women's Association (Norway)<ref>[https://www.pawa.no/ Pan African Women Association.]</ref> === Insyd de United States === * De Council on African Affairs (CAA): dem found insyd 1937 by Max Yergan den Paul Robeson.<ref name="Duberman 296-297">Duberman, Martin. ''Paul Robeson'', 1989, pp. 296–97.</ref> * Na dem found de US Organization insyd 1965 by Maulana Karenga, dey follow de Watts riots.<ref name="The US Organization">{{cite web|title=Philosophy, Principles, and Program|url=http://www.us-organization.org/30th/ppp.html|website=The Organization Us}}</ref> * TransAfrica be a non-profit organization dem found insyd 1977 by Randall Robinson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TransAfrica|url=https://africanactivist.msu.edu/organization.php?name=TransAfrica|publisher=African Activist Archive}}</ref> ==Pan-African concepts den philosophies== ===Maafa studies=== ===Afrocentric pan-Africanism=== ===Kawaida=== ===Hip-hop=== == Pan-African art den media == * ''Les Afriques'', a weekly African financial newspaper. E dey claim e be de first pan-African<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gbadamassi|first=Falila|date=July 11, 2007|title='Les Afriques': le nouveau journal de la finance africaine|url=https://www.afrik.com/les-afriques-le-nouveau-journal-de-la-finance-africaine|website=Afrik.com}}</ref> financial newspaper. * Pan African Writers' Association == References == <references /> == External links == fjjhm19hvlmehcue9ckuz34atmzgwyl 63600 63599 2025-06-16T20:06:35Z DaSupremo 9 /* Bibliography */ Improve article 63600 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Overview == Pan-Africanism dey stress de need for "collective self-reliance".<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> Pan-Africanism dey exist as a governmental den grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates dey include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, [[Haile Selassie]], [[Jomo Kenyatta]], Edward Wilmot Blyden, [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], [[Julius Nyerere]], Robert Sobukwe, [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]], [[Kwame Nkrumah]], King Sobhuza II, [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Thomas Sankara]], Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, grassroots organizers such as [[Joseph Robert Love]], [[Marcus Garvey]], den [[Malcolm X]], academics such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], Anténor Firmin den odas insyd de diaspora.<ref name="Pan-Africanism">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity|last2=Essien|first2=Kwame|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135005191|location=London|pages=71–72|access-date=September 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''], pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref name="Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |date=1988 |title=Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World |journal=Présence Africaine |publisher=Editions Présence Africaine |volume=145 |issue=145 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.3917/presa.145.0026 |jstor=24351577}}</ref> Na Pan-Africanists believe say solidarity go enable de continent make e fulfil ein potential to independently provide for all ein people. Crucially, an all-African alliance go empower African people globally. De realization of de pan-African objective go lead to "power consolidation insyd Africa", wich na "go compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy den political assertion&nbsp;... wey na go unsettle social den political (power) structures...insyd de Americas".<ref name="Agyeman [in] Mawere">Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 ''African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging''], Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. {{ISBN|9789956763016}}. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == History == As a philosophy, pan-Africanism dey represent de aggregation of de historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, den philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to de present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system dey trace ein origins from ancient times, den dey promote values wey be de product of de African civilisations den de struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, den neocolonialism.<ref name="Pan-Africanism"/> Dey coincide plus chaw New World slave insurrections (hallmark by de [[Haitian Revolution]]), na de end of de 19th century birth an intercontinental pro-African political movement wey seek make e unify disparate campaigns insyd de goal to end oppression. Na e be diasporic Africans dema removal from de continent wey enable dem make dem view am as a whole.<ref>Reid, Richard; Parker, John (October 1, 2013), Parker, John; Reid, Richard (eds.), [https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28187/chapter-abstract/213093103?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false "Introduction African Histories: Past, Present, and Future"], ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History'', Oxford University Press, p.&nbsp;0, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957247-2|978-0-19-957247-2]]</bdi>, retrieved January 26, 2025</ref> ==Important women insyd pan-Africanism== Na Pan-Africanism see de contribution of chaw female African activists thru out ein lifespan, despite de systemic lack of attention dem pay to dem by scholars den male pan-Africanist alike.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany |url=https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ |access-date=2025-06-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey, wey found de international newspaper ''Negro World.''<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Nangwaya|first1=Ajamu|date=May 26, 2016|title=Pan-Africanism, feminism, and finding missing Pan-Africanist women|url=https://www.pambazuka.org/pan-africanism/pan-africanism-feminism-and-finding-missing-pan-africanist-women|access-date=September 28, 2022|website=Pambazuka News|publisher=}}</ref> * Na Claudia Jones be anoda pan-Africanist. In order to fight against racism towards black people insyd Britain, na Jones set up de ''West Indian Gazette.''<ref name="auto" /> * Insyd de United States, na [[Queen Mother Moore|Audley Moore]] den Dara Abubakari play a vital role in developing Pan-African thought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farmer |first1=Ashley D. |date=2016 |title=Mothers of Pan-Africanism: Audley Moore and Dara Abubakari |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |journal=Women, Gender, and Families of Color |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=274–295 |doi=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |jstor=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |s2cid=157178972 |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 15, 2021}}</ref> * Peggy Antrobus * Na dem born Alice Victoria Alexander Kinloch insyd 1863 insyd Cape Town, South Africa, before na ein family move to Kimberley. * Na Jeanne Martin Cissé be instrumental insyd de independence of [[Guinea]]. * Na dem born [[Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti]] (FRK) insyd 1900 wey na she study insyd England insyd 1922.<ref name="Shonekan, Fela's Foundation, page 135">{{cite journal |last1=Shonekan |first1=Stephanie |date=Spring 2009 |title=Fela's Foundation: Examining the Revolutionary Songs of Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and the Abeokuta Market Women's Movement in 1940s Western Nigeria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20640673 |journal=Black Music Research Journal |volume=29 |issue=1 |page=135 |jstor=20640673 |access-date=November 16, 2021}}</ref> ==Political parties den organizations== ===Insyd Africa=== ==== Formal political bodies ==== * Organisation of African Unity, wey de [[African Union]] succeed am * Pan-African Parliament, [[African Union]] ====Political groups den organizations==== * African Unification Front * ''Rassemblement Démocratique Africain'', defunct * All-African People's Revolutionary Party * Pan-African Women's Organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100019754|title=Pan African Women's Organization &#124; UIA Yearbook Profile &#124; Union of International Associations}}</ref> * All Africa Conference of Churches (Kenya) * All-African Trade Union Federation, defunct * Convention People's Party (Ghana) * African National Congress ([[South Africa]]) === Insyd de Caribbean === * De Pan-African Affairs Commission for Pan-African Affairs, a unit within de Office of de Prime Minister of Barbados.<ref name="Worrell2005">{{cite book|last=Worrell|first=Rodney|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkLVIdJ2g0C&pg=PA99|title=Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-century Pan-African Formations in Barbados|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9744934-6-6|pages=99–102}}</ref> * African Society for Cultural Relations with Independent Africa, defunct (Guyana) * Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (Antigua den Barbuda) * Clement Payne Movement (Barbados) * Marcus Garvey People's Political Party (Jamaica) * Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (Jamaica) === Insyd Europe === * Pan-African Federation ([[United Kingdom]]), defunct * Pan-African Women's Association (Norway)<ref>[https://www.pawa.no/ Pan African Women Association.]</ref> === Insyd de United States === * De Council on African Affairs (CAA): dem found insyd 1937 by Max Yergan den Paul Robeson.<ref name="Duberman 296-297">Duberman, Martin. ''Paul Robeson'', 1989, pp. 296–97.</ref> * Na dem found de US Organization insyd 1965 by Maulana Karenga, dey follow de Watts riots.<ref name="The US Organization">{{cite web|title=Philosophy, Principles, and Program|url=http://www.us-organization.org/30th/ppp.html|website=The Organization Us}}</ref> * TransAfrica be a non-profit organization dem found insyd 1977 by Randall Robinson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TransAfrica|url=https://africanactivist.msu.edu/organization.php?name=TransAfrica|publisher=African Activist Archive}}</ref> ==Pan-African concepts den philosophies== ===Maafa studies=== ===Afrocentric pan-Africanism=== ===Kawaida=== ===Hip-hop=== == Pan-African art den media == * ''Les Afriques'', a weekly African financial newspaper. E dey claim e be de first pan-African<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gbadamassi|first=Falila|date=July 11, 2007|title='Les Afriques': le nouveau journal de la finance africaine|url=https://www.afrik.com/les-afriques-le-nouveau-journal-de-la-finance-africaine|website=Afrik.com}}</ref> financial newspaper. * Pan African Writers' Association == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== {{Library resources box}} * Kemi Séba, ''Philosophie de la panafricanité fondamentale'' – Édition Fiat Lux, 2023 {{ISBN| 9791091157391}} * Hakim Adi, ''Pan-Africanism: A History.'' London: Bloomsbury, 2018 * Hakim Adi & Marika Sherwood, ''Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora Since 1787'', London: Routledge, 2003 * Wendell Nii Laryea Adjetey, ''Cross-Border Cosmopolitans: The Making of a Pan-African North America'', Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2023, {{ISBN|978-1-4696-6992-2}} * Imanuel Geiss, ''Panafrikanismus. Zur Geschichte der Dekolonisation.'' Habilitation, EVA, Frankfurt am Main, 1968, English as: ''The Pan-African Movement'', London: Methuen, 1974, {{ISBN|0-416-16710-1}}, and as: ''The Pan-African Movement. A history of Pan-Africanism in America, Europe and Africa'', New York: Africana Publ., 1974, {{ISBN|0-8419-0161-9}} == External links == simstg4x92qv3l5079mjgtar345eu4p 63601 63600 2025-06-16T20:07:18Z DaSupremo 9 /* Bibliography */ Improve article 63601 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Overview == Pan-Africanism dey stress de need for "collective self-reliance".<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> Pan-Africanism dey exist as a governmental den grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates dey include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, [[Haile Selassie]], [[Jomo Kenyatta]], Edward Wilmot Blyden, [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], [[Julius Nyerere]], Robert Sobukwe, [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]], [[Kwame Nkrumah]], King Sobhuza II, [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Thomas Sankara]], Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, grassroots organizers such as [[Joseph Robert Love]], [[Marcus Garvey]], den [[Malcolm X]], academics such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], Anténor Firmin den odas insyd de diaspora.<ref name="Pan-Africanism">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity|last2=Essien|first2=Kwame|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135005191|location=London|pages=71–72|access-date=September 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''], pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref name="Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |date=1988 |title=Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World |journal=Présence Africaine |publisher=Editions Présence Africaine |volume=145 |issue=145 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.3917/presa.145.0026 |jstor=24351577}}</ref> Na Pan-Africanists believe say solidarity go enable de continent make e fulfil ein potential to independently provide for all ein people. Crucially, an all-African alliance go empower African people globally. De realization of de pan-African objective go lead to "power consolidation insyd Africa", wich na "go compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy den political assertion&nbsp;... wey na go unsettle social den political (power) structures...insyd de Americas".<ref name="Agyeman [in] Mawere">Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 ''African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging''], Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. {{ISBN|9789956763016}}. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == History == As a philosophy, pan-Africanism dey represent de aggregation of de historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, den philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to de present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system dey trace ein origins from ancient times, den dey promote values wey be de product of de African civilisations den de struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, den neocolonialism.<ref name="Pan-Africanism"/> Dey coincide plus chaw New World slave insurrections (hallmark by de [[Haitian Revolution]]), na de end of de 19th century birth an intercontinental pro-African political movement wey seek make e unify disparate campaigns insyd de goal to end oppression. Na e be diasporic Africans dema removal from de continent wey enable dem make dem view am as a whole.<ref>Reid, Richard; Parker, John (October 1, 2013), Parker, John; Reid, Richard (eds.), [https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28187/chapter-abstract/213093103?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false "Introduction African Histories: Past, Present, and Future"], ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History'', Oxford University Press, p.&nbsp;0, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957247-2|978-0-19-957247-2]]</bdi>, retrieved January 26, 2025</ref> ==Important women insyd pan-Africanism== Na Pan-Africanism see de contribution of chaw female African activists thru out ein lifespan, despite de systemic lack of attention dem pay to dem by scholars den male pan-Africanist alike.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany |url=https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ |access-date=2025-06-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey, wey found de international newspaper ''Negro World.''<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Nangwaya|first1=Ajamu|date=May 26, 2016|title=Pan-Africanism, feminism, and finding missing Pan-Africanist women|url=https://www.pambazuka.org/pan-africanism/pan-africanism-feminism-and-finding-missing-pan-africanist-women|access-date=September 28, 2022|website=Pambazuka News|publisher=}}</ref> * Na Claudia Jones be anoda pan-Africanist. In order to fight against racism towards black people insyd Britain, na Jones set up de ''West Indian Gazette.''<ref name="auto" /> * Insyd de United States, na [[Queen Mother Moore|Audley Moore]] den Dara Abubakari play a vital role in developing Pan-African thought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farmer |first1=Ashley D. |date=2016 |title=Mothers of Pan-Africanism: Audley Moore and Dara Abubakari |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |journal=Women, Gender, and Families of Color |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=274–295 |doi=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |jstor=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |s2cid=157178972 |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 15, 2021}}</ref> * Peggy Antrobus * Na dem born Alice Victoria Alexander Kinloch insyd 1863 insyd Cape Town, South Africa, before na ein family move to Kimberley. * Na Jeanne Martin Cissé be instrumental insyd de independence of [[Guinea]]. * Na dem born [[Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti]] (FRK) insyd 1900 wey na she study insyd England insyd 1922.<ref name="Shonekan, Fela's Foundation, page 135">{{cite journal |last1=Shonekan |first1=Stephanie |date=Spring 2009 |title=Fela's Foundation: Examining the Revolutionary Songs of Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and the Abeokuta Market Women's Movement in 1940s Western Nigeria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20640673 |journal=Black Music Research Journal |volume=29 |issue=1 |page=135 |jstor=20640673 |access-date=November 16, 2021}}</ref> ==Political parties den organizations== ===Insyd Africa=== ==== Formal political bodies ==== * Organisation of African Unity, wey de [[African Union]] succeed am * Pan-African Parliament, [[African Union]] ====Political groups den organizations==== * African Unification Front * ''Rassemblement Démocratique Africain'', defunct * All-African People's Revolutionary Party * Pan-African Women's Organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100019754|title=Pan African Women's Organization &#124; UIA Yearbook Profile &#124; Union of International Associations}}</ref> * All Africa Conference of Churches (Kenya) * All-African Trade Union Federation, defunct * Convention People's Party (Ghana) * African National Congress ([[South Africa]]) === Insyd de Caribbean === * De Pan-African Affairs Commission for Pan-African Affairs, a unit within de Office of de Prime Minister of Barbados.<ref name="Worrell2005">{{cite book|last=Worrell|first=Rodney|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkLVIdJ2g0C&pg=PA99|title=Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-century Pan-African Formations in Barbados|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9744934-6-6|pages=99–102}}</ref> * African Society for Cultural Relations with Independent Africa, defunct (Guyana) * Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (Antigua den Barbuda) * Clement Payne Movement (Barbados) * Marcus Garvey People's Political Party (Jamaica) * Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (Jamaica) === Insyd Europe === * Pan-African Federation ([[United Kingdom]]), defunct * Pan-African Women's Association (Norway)<ref>[https://www.pawa.no/ Pan African Women Association.]</ref> === Insyd de United States === * De Council on African Affairs (CAA): dem found insyd 1937 by Max Yergan den Paul Robeson.<ref name="Duberman 296-297">Duberman, Martin. ''Paul Robeson'', 1989, pp. 296–97.</ref> * Na dem found de US Organization insyd 1965 by Maulana Karenga, dey follow de Watts riots.<ref name="The US Organization">{{cite web|title=Philosophy, Principles, and Program|url=http://www.us-organization.org/30th/ppp.html|website=The Organization Us}}</ref> * TransAfrica be a non-profit organization dem found insyd 1977 by Randall Robinson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TransAfrica|url=https://africanactivist.msu.edu/organization.php?name=TransAfrica|publisher=African Activist Archive}}</ref> ==Pan-African concepts den philosophies== ===Maafa studies=== ===Afrocentric pan-Africanism=== ===Kawaida=== ===Hip-hop=== == Pan-African art den media == * ''Les Afriques'', a weekly African financial newspaper. E dey claim e be de first pan-African<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gbadamassi|first=Falila|date=July 11, 2007|title='Les Afriques': le nouveau journal de la finance africaine|url=https://www.afrik.com/les-afriques-le-nouveau-journal-de-la-finance-africaine|website=Afrik.com}}</ref> financial newspaper. * Pan African Writers' Association == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== {{Library resources box}} * Kemi Séba, ''Philosophie de la panafricanité fondamentale'' – Édition Fiat Lux, 2023 {{ISBN| 9791091157391}} * Hakim Adi, ''Pan-Africanism: A History.'' London: Bloomsbury, 2018 * Hakim Adi & Marika Sherwood, ''Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora Since 1787'', London: Routledge, 2003 * Wendell Nii Laryea Adjetey, ''Cross-Border Cosmopolitans: The Making of a Pan-African North America'', Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2023, {{ISBN|978-1-4696-6992-2}} * Imanuel Geiss, ''Panafrikanismus. Zur Geschichte der Dekolonisation.'' Habilitation, EVA, Frankfurt am Main, 1968, English as: ''The Pan-African Movement'', London: Methuen, 1974, {{ISBN|0-416-16710-1}}, and as: ''The Pan-African Movement. A history of Pan-Africanism in America, Europe and Africa'', New York: Africana Publ., 1974, {{ISBN|0-8419-0161-9}} * Blain N. Keisha, Asia Leeds, and Ula Y. Taylor, ''Women, Gender Politics and Pan-Africanism'', Vol. 4, Issue 2 (Fall 2016), pp.&nbsp;139–145 * Colin Legum, [http://www.freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/Black%20Liberation%20Disk/Black%20Power!/SugahData/Books/Legum.S.pdf ''Pan-Africanism: A Short Political Guide''], revised edition, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965 * Tony Martin, ''Pan-African Connection: From Slavery to Garvey and Beyond'', Dover: The Majority Press, 1985 * Willie Molesi, ''Black Africa versus Arab North Africa: The Great Divide'', {{ISBN|979-8332308994}} * Willie Molesi, ''Relations Between Africans and Arabs: Harsh Realities'', {{ISBN|979-8334767546}} == External links == pc38i6kja4a9tghgyk9xnodbb44v7gr 63602 63601 2025-06-16T20:08:23Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63602 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pan-Africanism''' be a nationalist movement wey dey aim make dem encourage den strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples den diasporas of [[Africa]]n ancestry. Based on a common goal wey dey date back to de [[Atlantic slave trade]], de Trans-Saharan slave trade, de Indian Ocean slave trade, de Red Sea slave trade, slavery insyd de Cape Colony (now [[South Africa]]), along plus slavery insyd [[Mauritius]], de movement dey extend beyond continental Africans plus a substantial support base among de African diaspora insyd de Americas den Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=David |date=Fall 2007 |title=All Roads Led to Montreal: Black Power, the Caribbean and the Black Radical Tradition in Canada |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=516–539 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv92n4p516 |s2cid=140509880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oloruntoba-Oju |first=Omotayo |date=December 2012 |title=Pan Africanism, Myth and History in African and Caribbean Drama |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-316072934/pan-africanism-myth-and-history-in-african-and-caribbean |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |pages=190 ff |number=8}}</ref> Na dem say Pan-Africanism get ein origins insyd de struggles of de African people against enslavement den colonization<ref>Abdul-Raheem, Tajudeen (ed.), ''Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century'', New York University Press, 1996.</ref> wey na dis struggle fi be traced back to de first resistance on slave ships—rebellions den suicides—thru de constant plantation den colonial uprisings den de "Back to Africa" movements of de 19th century. Based on de belief say unity be vital to economic, social, den political progress, e dey aim to unify den uplift people of African ancestry.<ref>Frick, Janari, et al. (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UA27TyBO0kC&pg=PA235 ''History: Learner's Book''], p. 235, South Africa: New Africa Books.</ref> At ein core, pan-Africanism be a belief dat "African people, both on de continent den insyd de diaspora, dem no dey share merely a common history, buh a common destiny."<ref>{{cite web|last=Makalani|first=Minkah|year=2011|title=Pan-Africanism|url=http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-pan-africanism.html|work=Africana Age}}</ref> Pan-Africanism dey posit a sense of a shared historical fate give Africans insyd de Americas, de West Indies, den on de continent, na einself center on de Atlantic trade insyd slaves, [[Slavery in Africa|African slavery]], den European imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|publisher=The Gale Group|year=2005}}</ref> Na Pan-African thought influence de establishment of de Organisation of African Unity (since be succeeded by de [[African Union]]) insyd 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abrahamsen |first1=Rita |date=January 2020 |title=Internationalists, sovereigntists, nativists: Contending visions of world order in Pan-Africanism |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=56–74 |doi=10.1017/S0260210519000305 |s2cid=210466747}}</ref><ref>[http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell "AU in a Nutshell"], African Union. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055921/http://www.au.int/en/about/nutshell Archived] January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).</ref> De African Union Commission get ein seat insyd Addis Ababa den de Pan-African Parliament get ein seat insyd Midrand, Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-Africanism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism|access-date=May 24, 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> == Overview == Pan-Africanism dey stress de need for "collective self-reliance".<ref>[http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/ "The objectives of the PAP"], The Pan-African Parliament – 2014 and beyond.</ref> Pan-Africanism dey exist as a governmental den grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates dey include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, François Duvalier, Aimé Césaire, [[Haile Selassie]], [[Jomo Kenyatta]], Edward Wilmot Blyden, [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], [[Julius Nyerere]], Robert Sobukwe, [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]], [[Kwame Nkrumah]], King Sobhuza II, [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Thomas Sankara]], Kwame Ture, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli, [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Walter Rodney, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, grassroots organizers such as [[Joseph Robert Love]], [[Marcus Garvey]], den [[Malcolm X]], academics such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], Anténor Firmin den odas insyd de diaspora.<ref name="Pan-Africanism">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VlHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Pan-Africanism, and the Politics of African Citizenship and Identity|last2=Essien|first2=Kwame|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135005191|location=London|pages=71–72|access-date=September 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''], pp. 250–278.</ref><ref>Maguire, K., [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/ghana/090925/ghana-honors-nkrumah-statue-moammar-gadhafi "Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah"], GlobalPost, October 21, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2012.</ref><ref name="Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |date=1988 |title=Pan-Africanism: A Brief History of An Idea in the African World |journal=Présence Africaine |publisher=Editions Présence Africaine |volume=145 |issue=145 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.3917/presa.145.0026 |jstor=24351577}}</ref> Na Pan-Africanists believe say solidarity go enable de continent make e fulfil ein potential to independently provide for all ein people. Crucially, an all-African alliance go empower African people globally. De realization of de pan-African objective go lead to "power consolidation insyd Africa", wich na "go compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy den political assertion&nbsp;... wey na go unsettle social den political (power) structures...insyd de Americas".<ref name="Agyeman [in] Mawere">Agyeman, O., ''Pan-Africanism and Its Detractors: A Response to Harvard's Race Effacing Universalists'', Harvard University Press (1998), cited in Mawere, Munyaradzi; Tapuwa R. Mubaya, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SrqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 ''African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging''], Langaa RPCIG (2016), p. 89. {{ISBN|9789956763016}}. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> == History == As a philosophy, pan-Africanism dey represent de aggregation of de historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, den philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to de present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system dey trace ein origins from ancient times, den dey promote values wey be de product of de African civilisations den de struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, den neocolonialism.<ref name="Pan-Africanism"/> Dey coincide plus chaw New World slave insurrections (hallmark by de [[Haitian Revolution]]), na de end of de 19th century birth an intercontinental pro-African political movement wey seek make e unify disparate campaigns insyd de goal to end oppression. Na e be diasporic Africans dema removal from de continent wey enable dem make dem view am as a whole.<ref>Reid, Richard; Parker, John (October 1, 2013), Parker, John; Reid, Richard (eds.), [https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28187/chapter-abstract/213093103?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false "Introduction African Histories: Past, Present, and Future"], ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History'', Oxford University Press, p.&nbsp;0, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957247-2|978-0-19-957247-2]]</bdi>, retrieved January 26, 2025</ref> ==Important women insyd pan-Africanism== Na Pan-Africanism see de contribution of chaw female African activists thru out ein lifespan, despite de systemic lack of attention dem pay to dem by scholars den male pan-Africanist alike.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Important women in pan-Africanism and their contributions to the Unity of Africa – The Africa we want e.V Germany |url=https://theafrikawewant.com/important-women-in-pan-africanism-and-their-contributions-to-the-unity-of-africa/ |access-date=2025-06-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey, wey found de international newspaper ''Negro World.''<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Nangwaya|first1=Ajamu|date=May 26, 2016|title=Pan-Africanism, feminism, and finding missing Pan-Africanist women|url=https://www.pambazuka.org/pan-africanism/pan-africanism-feminism-and-finding-missing-pan-africanist-women|access-date=September 28, 2022|website=Pambazuka News|publisher=}}</ref> * Na Claudia Jones be anoda pan-Africanist. In order to fight against racism towards black people insyd Britain, na Jones set up de ''West Indian Gazette.''<ref name="auto" /> * Insyd de United States, na [[Queen Mother Moore|Audley Moore]] den Dara Abubakari play a vital role in developing Pan-African thought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farmer |first1=Ashley D. |date=2016 |title=Mothers of Pan-Africanism: Audley Moore and Dara Abubakari |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |journal=Women, Gender, and Families of Color |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=274–295 |doi=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |jstor=10.5406/womgenfamcol.4.2.0274 |s2cid=157178972 |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 15, 2021}}</ref> * Peggy Antrobus * Na dem born Alice Victoria Alexander Kinloch insyd 1863 insyd Cape Town, South Africa, before na ein family move to Kimberley. * Na Jeanne Martin Cissé be instrumental insyd de independence of [[Guinea]]. * Na dem born [[Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti]] (FRK) insyd 1900 wey na she study insyd England insyd 1922.<ref name="Shonekan, Fela's Foundation, page 135">{{cite journal |last1=Shonekan |first1=Stephanie |date=Spring 2009 |title=Fela's Foundation: Examining the Revolutionary Songs of Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and the Abeokuta Market Women's Movement in 1940s Western Nigeria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20640673 |journal=Black Music Research Journal |volume=29 |issue=1 |page=135 |jstor=20640673 |access-date=November 16, 2021}}</ref> ==Political parties den organizations== ===Insyd Africa=== ==== Formal political bodies ==== * Organisation of African Unity, wey de [[African Union]] succeed am * Pan-African Parliament, [[African Union]] ====Political groups den organizations==== * African Unification Front * ''Rassemblement Démocratique Africain'', defunct * All-African People's Revolutionary Party * Pan-African Women's Organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100019754|title=Pan African Women's Organization &#124; UIA Yearbook Profile &#124; Union of International Associations}}</ref> * All Africa Conference of Churches (Kenya) * All-African Trade Union Federation, defunct * Convention People's Party (Ghana) * African National Congress ([[South Africa]]) === Insyd de Caribbean === * De Pan-African Affairs Commission for Pan-African Affairs, a unit within de Office of de Prime Minister of Barbados.<ref name="Worrell2005">{{cite book|last=Worrell|first=Rodney|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkLVIdJ2g0C&pg=PA99|title=Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-century Pan-African Formations in Barbados|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9744934-6-6|pages=99–102}}</ref> * African Society for Cultural Relations with Independent Africa, defunct (Guyana) * Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (Antigua den Barbuda) * Clement Payne Movement (Barbados) * Marcus Garvey People's Political Party (Jamaica) * Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (Jamaica) === Insyd Europe === * Pan-African Federation ([[United Kingdom]]), defunct * Pan-African Women's Association (Norway)<ref>[https://www.pawa.no/ Pan African Women Association.]</ref> === Insyd de United States === * De Council on African Affairs (CAA): dem found insyd 1937 by Max Yergan den Paul Robeson.<ref name="Duberman 296-297">Duberman, Martin. ''Paul Robeson'', 1989, pp. 296–97.</ref> * Na dem found de US Organization insyd 1965 by Maulana Karenga, dey follow de Watts riots.<ref name="The US Organization">{{cite web|title=Philosophy, Principles, and Program|url=http://www.us-organization.org/30th/ppp.html|website=The Organization Us}}</ref> * TransAfrica be a non-profit organization dem found insyd 1977 by Randall Robinson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TransAfrica|url=https://africanactivist.msu.edu/organization.php?name=TransAfrica|publisher=African Activist Archive}}</ref> ==Pan-African concepts den philosophies== ===Maafa studies=== ===Afrocentric pan-Africanism=== ===Kawaida=== ===Hip-hop=== == Pan-African art den media == * ''Les Afriques'', a weekly African financial newspaper. E dey claim e be de first pan-African<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gbadamassi|first=Falila|date=July 11, 2007|title='Les Afriques': le nouveau journal de la finance africaine|url=https://www.afrik.com/les-afriques-le-nouveau-journal-de-la-finance-africaine|website=Afrik.com}}</ref> financial newspaper. * Pan African Writers' Association == References == <references /> ==Bibliography== {{Library resources box}} * Kemi Séba, ''Philosophie de la panafricanité fondamentale'' – Édition Fiat Lux, 2023 {{ISBN| 9791091157391}} * Hakim Adi, ''Pan-Africanism: A History.'' London: Bloomsbury, 2018 * Hakim Adi & Marika Sherwood, ''Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora Since 1787'', London: Routledge, 2003 * Wendell Nii Laryea Adjetey, ''Cross-Border Cosmopolitans: The Making of a Pan-African North America'', Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2023, {{ISBN|978-1-4696-6992-2}} * Imanuel Geiss, ''Panafrikanismus. Zur Geschichte der Dekolonisation.'' Habilitation, EVA, Frankfurt am Main, 1968, English as: ''The Pan-African Movement'', London: Methuen, 1974, {{ISBN|0-416-16710-1}}, and as: ''The Pan-African Movement. A history of Pan-Africanism in America, Europe and Africa'', New York: Africana Publ., 1974, {{ISBN|0-8419-0161-9}} * Blain N. Keisha, Asia Leeds, and Ula Y. Taylor, ''Women, Gender Politics and Pan-Africanism'', Vol. 4, Issue 2 (Fall 2016), pp.&nbsp;139–145 * Colin Legum, [http://www.freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/Black%20Liberation%20Disk/Black%20Power!/SugahData/Books/Legum.S.pdf ''Pan-Africanism: A Short Political Guide''], revised edition, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965 * Tony Martin, ''Pan-African Connection: From Slavery to Garvey and Beyond'', Dover: The Majority Press, 1985 * Willie Molesi, ''Black Africa versus Arab North Africa: The Great Divide'', {{ISBN|979-8332308994}} * Willie Molesi, ''Relations Between Africans and Arabs: Harsh Realities'', {{ISBN|979-8334767546}} ==External links== {{sister project links||d=Q282739|c=Category:Pan-Africanism|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Pan-Africanism| ]] [[Category:Pan-nationalism|Africanism]] [[Category:African den Black nationalism]] [[Category:African diaspora]] [[Category:Africana philosophy]] [[Category:Identity politics]] [[Category:Political ideologies]] [[Category:Political movements]] [[Category:Politics den race]] [[Category:Regionalism (international relations)]] 2peh88o5e8swc5b5cp261iz02v6891o 0 16850 63561 63376 2025-06-16T17:47:39Z DaSupremo 9 /* Sources */ Improve article 63561 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Pan-African Congress''' (PAC) be a regular series of meetings wich na first take place on de back of de Pan-African Conference dem hold insyd London in 1900. De Pan-African Congress first gain a reputation as a peacemaker for decolonization insyd Africa den insyd de West Indies, wey e make a significant advance for de [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-African]] cause. Insyd de beginning, na one of de group ein major demands be make dem end colonial rule den racial discrimination. Na e stand against imperialism wey na e demand human rights den equality of economic opportunity. De manifesto wey de Pan-African Congress give include de political den economic demands of de Congress for a new world context of international cooperation den de need make dem address de issues wey dey face Africa as a result of European colonization of chaw of de continent. Na congresses take place insyd 1919 insyd Paris; 1921 insyd Brussels, London den Paris; 1923 insyd Lisbon den London; 1927 insyd New York City; 1945 insyd Manchester; 1974 insyd Dar es Salaam; 1994 insyd Kampala; den 2014 insyd Johannesburg. == Background == [[File:W.E.B._Du_Bois_to_NAACP_January_1919_about_First_Pan_African_Congress.jpg|thumb|Letter from W.E.B. Du Bois to de NAACP January 1919 about planning de First Pan African Congress.]] Na dem create [[Pan-Africanism|Pan Africanism]] as a philosophy as early as de late 1700s, dem see thru de movements of abolition insyd both de United States den Britain.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 187.</ref> Na British writers den former slaves, [[Ottobah Cugoano]] den [[Olaudah Equiano]] create de foundations for Pan Africanism insyd English literature.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 188.</ref> Na French speakers, like [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], create de idea of [[Négritude]].<ref name=":0">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 189.</ref> Na dese ideas refute de inferiority of Black people.<ref name=":0" /> Na Pan Africanists believe dat na dem build both slavery den colonialism on negative attitudes towards people of African descent, wich in turn, contribute to racism.<ref name="Adejumobi2">{{Cite web|last=Adejumobi|first=Saheed|date=2008-07-30|title=The Pan-African Congresses, 1900–1945|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/pan-african-congresses-1900-1945/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=Black Past|language=en-US}}</ref> Na African Americans especially be frustrated plus dema slow progress towards racial equality insyd de [[United States]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> == 1919 Paris Congress (First) == === Delegates === Among de delegates be:<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHarrison,_Jr.1921|Harrison, Jr. 1921]], p. 84.</ref> * Alfredo Andrade, Portugal.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 141.</ref> * John Archer, Britain.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web|last=Reft|first=Ryan|date=2019-02-19|title=African-American History Month: First Pan-African Congress|url=https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2019/02/african-american-history-month-first-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=The Library of Congress}}</ref> * Matthew Virgil Boutte, United States.<ref name=":2">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDu_Bois1919|Du Bois 1919]].</ref> * Eliezer Cadet, Haiti * Gratien Candace.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 136.</ref> * Louise Chapoteau, France.<ref name=":2" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Helen Noble Curtis, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 114.</ref> * Blaise Diagne, [[Senegal]], den French Commissioner General of de Ministry of Colonies.<ref name=":3" /> * [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], NAACP delegate.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 135.</ref> * Henry Franklin-Bouillon, France.<ref name=":1" /> * M. Edmund Fitzgerald Fredericks, Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) delegate.<ref name=":1" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Tertullien Guilbaud, Minister of Haiti insyd France.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 119.</ref> * John Hope, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Ida Gibbs Hunt, United States.<ref name=":3" /> * Addie Hunton, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 7-8.</ref> * George Jackson, United States den Congo.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * William Jernagin, United States. * Charles D. B. King, [[Liberia]].<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 143.</ref> * Joseph Lagrosillière, Gaudeloupe.<ref name=":1" /> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Robert Russa Moton, United States. * Sol Plaatje, [[South Africa]]. (Possibly.)<ref>Geiss, ''The Pan-African Movement'', p.238.</ref> * Achille René-Boisneuf, Martinique.<ref name=":1" /> * Charles Edward Russell, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Benjamin F. Seldon, United States.<ref name=":2" /> * Roscoe Conklin Simmons, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Joel Elias Spingarn, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Cyrille Van Overbergh, Belgian Peace Commission.<ref>{{cite journal |author=W. E. B. Dubois |date=April 1919 |title=The Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/0400-crisis-v17n06-w102.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=17 |issue=6}}</ref> * William English Walling, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Richard R. Wright == 1921 Brussels, London den Paris Congress (Second) == === Delegates === * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Addie E. Dillard.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 8.</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], pp. 7–8.</ref> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Reed |first=David |date=2014 |title=Rayford W. Logan: The Evolution of a Pan-African Protege, 1921–1927 |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A367197623/AONE?u=txshrpub100124&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=ee293e77 |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=31 |url-access=subscription |via=Gale Academic OneFile}}</ref> * Albert Marryshow, Grenada.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFBogues2011|Bogues 2011]], p. 488.</ref> == 1923 Lisbon den London Congress (Third)== Insyd 1923, na dem hold de Third Pan-African Congress insyd London den insyd Lisbon. Na Helen Noble Curtis be an important planner of de Lisbon event, wich na e be smaller dan de odas.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 125.</ref> Na dem hold de London Congress at Denison House.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 121.</ref> Na dis meeting sanso repeat de demands such as self-rule, de problems insyd de Diaspora den de African-European relationship.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMboukou1983|Mboukou 1983]], p. 276.</ref> == 1927 New York City Congress (Fourth) == === Event === Na dem hold de opening meeting at St. Mark's Methodist Church den de Headquarters remain at de Grace Congregational Church.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-22|title=Negro Experts Attend Pan-African Congress Opening in New York|pages=3|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135167/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na der be about 208 delegates wey komot de United States den oda countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na low attendance from British den French colonies be secof government travel restrictions.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na William Pickens give a speech on de importance of worker solidarity during de opening session.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=For the Unity of Labor|pages=4|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125134913/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=Pickens Addresses Pan-African Congress|pages=6|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker-pickens-addresses-1927/121492715/|access-date=2023-05-23|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na oda speakers at de opening session include Chief Nana Amoah, Reginald G. Barrow, Dantès Bellegarde, James Francis Jenkins, H. K. Rakhit, Adolph Sixto, den T. Augustus Toote.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-27|title=Representative Delegation at Pan-African Meet|pages=3|work=The New York Age|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-new-york-age/88260140/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na later speeches be given by W. Tete Ansa, Helen Noble Curtis, Du Bois, Leo William Hansbury, Leslie Pinckney Hill, Georges Sylvain, den Charles H. Wesley.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite web|date=2022-06-01|title=DOCUMENT: Resolutions Passed by the Fourth Pan-African Congress, New York City, 1927|url=http://blackagendareport.com/document-resolutions-passed-fourth-pan-african-congress-new-york-city-1927|access-date=2023-05-23|website=Black Agenda Report|language=en}}</ref> De final speeches of de congress be given by H. H. Philips, Rayford Logan, den Y. Hikada on politics insyd Africa.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress Wants U.S. Navy to Leave Haiti|pages=1|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135529/|access-date=22 May 2023}} and {{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress to Ask U.S. Leave Haiti|pages=2|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135834/|access-date=22 May 2023|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na dem form committees during de event, wey dey include de creation of a resolution committee wey be headed by Bellegarde, Cannady, Du Bois, Hunton, den Reverdy C. Ransom.<ref name=":13" /> === Delegates === Na der be 208 delegates wey komot de United States den 10 different foreign countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na Africa be represented by delegates wey komot de [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Nigeria]], den [[Sierra Leone]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Dantès Bellegarde, Haiti.<ref name=":7" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Rayford Logan.<ref name=":22" /> * Richard B. Moore, American Negro Labor Congress.<ref name=":13" /> == 1945 Manchester Congress (Fifth) == === Attendees === Delegates Fifth Pan-African Congress dey include:<ref name="Sherwood2">{{Cite book|last=Sherwood|first=Marika|title=Manchester and the 1945 Pan-African Congress|publisher=Savannah Press|year=1995|isbn=0951972022|location=London}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite web|last=Høgsbjerg|first=Christian|date=12 April 2016|title=Remembering the Fifth Pan-African Congress|url=https://lucas.leeds.ac.uk/article/remembering-the-fifth-pan-african-congress-christian-hogsbjerg/|publisher=Leeds University Centre for African Studies (LUCAS)}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite web|date=14 October 2005|title=It began in Manchester — Manchester and The Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2005/10/14/151005_pan_african_congress_feature.shtml|publisher=BBC News; Black History Month}}</ref> * Antigua: ** Workers' Union – R.G. Small, W.R. Austin * Bahamas: ** R. Johnson, J. McCaskie, R.D. Watson, J.M. King * Barbados: ** Progressive League – E. de L. Yearwood ** Workers' Union – A. Mosley * Belize: ** Workers' League – H.T. Weir, M. Dawson, Gilbert Cargill, Horace Dawson * Bermuda: ** Workers' Association: G.R. Tucker, E. Richards * Gambia: ** Gambia Labour Union – I.M. Garba-Jahumpa ** National Council of Gambia – J. Downes-Thomas * Ghana: ** Aborigines' Rights Protection Society – Ashie Nikoi ** Friends of African Freedom Society – Bankole Awoonor Renner, Mrs Renner ** Gold Coast Farmers' Association – Ashie Nikoi, W.J. Kwesi Mould ** Railway Workers' Union – J.S. Annan<ref>{{Cite web|last=Annan|first=Citizen|date=2014-03-23|title=100 years of Nana Dr JS Annan, a life of service and social responsibility|url=https://citizenannan.wordpress.com/2014/03/23/100-years-of-nana-dr-js-annan-a-life-of-service-and-social-responsibility/|access-date=2023-05-17|website=Citizen Annan|language=en}}</ref> * Great Britain: ** African Progressive Association, London – Koi Larbi ** African Students' Union of Edinburgh – J.C deGraft Johnson ** Association of African Descent, Dublin – Jaja Wachuku ** Coloured Worker' Association – Ernest P. Marke, E.A. Aki-Emi, James Nortey ** International African Service Bureau – Peter Abrahams, Amy Ashwood Garvey, [[Kwame Nkrumah]], [[Haile Selassie|Ras T. Makonnen]], [[George Padmore]] ** League of African Peoples, Birmingham – Dr. Clarence J. Piliso ** The Negro Association, Manchester – C. Peart, M.I. Faro, Frank Niles, Dr. P. Milliard, F.W. Blaine ** The Negro Welfare Centre, Liverpool – E. E. Kwesi Kurankyi-Taylor, James Eggay Taylor,<ref>{{Cite web|last=James|first=Finding|title=Finding James|url=https://findingjames.net/|access-date=2023-05-18|website=Finding James|language=en-US}}</ref> Edwin J. DuPlan,<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2003|title=E J Du Plau, a welfare worker from Liverpool attends the Fifth...|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/du-plau-a-welfare-worker-from-liverpool-attends-the-fifth-news-photo/2666035|access-date=2023-05-24|website=Getty Images|language=en-gb}}</ref> C.D. Hyde, E. Asuquo Cowan ** The Young African Progressive League – Adeniran Ogunsanya, E. Brown, George Nelson, Raz Finni ** United Committee of Coloured and Colonial People Association, Cardiff – Aaron Albert Mossell, J.S. Andrew, Jim Nurse, H. Hassan, Basil Roderick ** West African Students' Union, London – Joe Appiah, F.O.B. Blaize, S. Ako Adjei, F.R. Kankam-Boadu * Grenada: ** Labour Party – S.J. Andrews * Guyana: ** African Development Association – W. Meighan, Dr. Peter Milliard ** Trades Union Council – D.M. Harper * Kenya: ** Kikuyu Central Association – [[Jomo Kenyatta]]. * Jamaica: ** People's National Party – L.A. Thoywell-Henry ** Trade Union Congress – Ken Hill<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-18|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League – Alma La Badie, L.A. Thoywell-Henry, V.G. Hamilton, K. Boxer * Liberia: ** Progressive Society – J. Tobie, Robert Broadhurst * Malawi: ** Nyasaland African Congress – Dr. Hastings Banda * Nigeria: ** Calabar Improvement League – Eyo B. Ndem ** National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons – Magnus Williams, F.B. Joseph ** Nigerian Youth Movement – [[Obafemi Awolowo]], H.O. Davies ** Trade Union Congress – A. Soyemi Coker * Saint Kitts and Nevis: ** St. Kitts Workers' League – R. Johnson ** St. Kitts and Nevis Trades and Labour Union – J.A. Linton, Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Bonita |date=1996 |title=Caribbean Women & Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489741 |journal=African Journal of Political Science / Revue Africaine de Science Politique |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=21–33 |issn=1027-0353 |jstor=23489741}}</ref> * Saint Lucia: ** Seamen's and Waterfront Workers' Union – J.M. King * Sierra Leone: ** Teachers' Union – Harry Sawyerr ** The People's Forum – Lamina Sankoh ** Trade Union Congress – I.T.A. Wallace Johnson ** West African Youth League – I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson * South Africa: ** African National Congress – Peter Abrahams, Makumalo (Mako) Hlubi<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 1945|title=Africa Speaks|url=https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b109-i072|access-date=2023-05-18|website=W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312)|publisher=Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries}}</ref> ** Na Davidson Don Tengo Jabavu be supposed to attend however along plus chaw of ein fellow South African delegates no fi secof issues obtaining passports. * Tanzania: ** S. Rahinda * Trinidad and Tobago: ** Federated Workers Trade Union – George Padmore ** Labour Party – Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6" /> ** Negro Welfare and Cultural Association – C. Lynch ** Oilfields Workers' Trade Union – John F.F. Rojas<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-19|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Trade Union Congress – Rupert Gittens ** West Indian National Party – Claude Lushington * Uganda: ** The Young Baganda – I. Yatu Fraternal delegates, observers den oda attendees include:<ref name="Sherwood2" /> * Committee of Cyprus Affairs – L. Joannou * Common Wealth – Miss Leeds * Communist Party of Great Britain – Len Johnson, Wilf Charles, Pat Devine<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirsch |first1=Shirin |last2=Brown |first2=Geoff |date=January 2023 |title=Breaking the 'colour bar': Len Johnson, Manchester and anti-racism |journal=Race & Class |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=36–58 |doi=10.1177/03063968221139993 |issn=0306-3968 |s2cid=254910173 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * Federation of Indian Associations - Nagendranath Gangulee * Federation of Indian Organisations in Britain - Surat Alley * Independent Labour Party - John McNair * Lanka Sama Samaja Party – Tikiri Banda Subasinghe * National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] * Negro Welfare Association – Miss Levy, R.B. Rose, A.B. Blaine * Somali Society – Ismail Dorbeh * Women's International League – N. Burton Oda Attendees include: Raphael Armattoe,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nkrumah|first=Kwame|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeswAAAACAAJ|title=Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah|date=2002|publisher=Panaf|isbn=978-0-901787-60-6|language=en}}</ref> Kojo Botsio,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bowman|first=Jack A. W.|title='Mak': Ras T Makonnen, the unrecognized hero of the Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.racearchive.org.uk/mak-ras-t-makonnen-the-unrecognized-hero-of-the-pan-african-movement/|access-date=2023-05-16|website=Race Archive|language=en-GB}}</ref> Cecil Belfield Clarke<ref name="Sherwood2" /> den Dudley Thompson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress 1945 and 1995 Archive – Archives Hub|url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb3228-34|access-date=2023-06-02|website=archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk}}</ref> == 1974 Dar es Salaam Congress (Sixth) == Na dem host de sixth Pan-African Congress, dem sanso know as "Sixth-PAC anaa 6PAC", insyd Dar es Salaam, Tanzania insyd June 1974.<ref name=":3" /> Na dis be de first time na de event take place insyd Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Na de event originally be proposed by Pauulu Kamarakafego make e challenge neocolonialism den apartheid.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFLevyHillClaude2008|Levy, Hill & Claude 2008]], p. 40.</ref> === Reception === Na de ''Los Angeles Times'' report say na de Congress be very divided wey often be too "militant".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ofari|first=Earl|date=1974-07-26|title=Pan-African Congress Failed to Fulfill Promise of Earlier Session|pages=37|work=The Los Angeles Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times/124862155/|access-date=2023-05-17|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> === Attendees === * Anna J. Cooper<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey<ref name=":4" /> == 1994 Kampala Congress (Seventh) == Na dem hold de seventh Pan-African Congress insyd Kampala, Uganda from April 3 to April 8, 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-14 |title=A Brief History of the Pan African Movement |url=https://panafricancongress.org/a-brief-history-of-the-pan-african-movement/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Pan African Congress |language=en-US}}</ref> Na de theme of de event be "Facing the Future in Unity, Social Progress and Democracy."<ref name=":5">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFCampbell1996|Campbell 1996]], p. 1.</ref> === Planning === Na dem call de seventh Pan African Congress by de Pan-African Movement of [[Nigeria]] wey na dem hope to hold de event insyd Lagos.<ref name=":8">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 161.</ref> Na dis group, however, want to limit attendance to "African people" per, no be Arab anaa white Africans.<ref name=":8" /> === Event === Na der be more dan 2,000 participants at de event, wich na include a Women's Pre-Congress meeting.<ref name=":5" /> === Delegates === * Ronald Muwenda Mutabi, ''Kabaka'' of Buganda.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 164.</ref> == 2014 Johannesburg Congress (Eighth) == Na dem hold de eighth Pan-African Congress at de [[University of the Witwatersrand]] from January 14 to January 16, 2014, insyd Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8th Pan-African Congress Calls for Council on African National Affairs|url=https://www.ituc-africa.org/8TH-PAN-AFRICAN-CONGRESS-CALLS-FOR.html|access-date=2023-05-01|website=ITUC-AFRICA / CSI-AFRIQUE|language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> === Sources === * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbDrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22George+Padmore+Pan-African+Revolutionary%22 |title=George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary |publisher=Ian Randle Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=9789766373504|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5kDwAAQBAJ |title=Pan-Africanism: A History |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4742-5430-4|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last1=Adi |first1=Hakim |last2=Sherwood | first2=Marika | author2-link= | title=The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress |publisher=New Beacon Books |year=1995 |isbn=1873201125 |location=London |pages=}} * {{Cite journal |last=Baraka |first=Imamu Amira |date=October 1974 |title=Some Questions About the Sixth Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41065763 |journal=Black Politics |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=42–46 |jstor=41065763 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bogues |first=Anthony |date=December 2011 |title=C.L.R. James, Pan-Africanism and the Black Radical Tradition |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&AN=69870596&site=ehost-live |journal=Critical Arts: A South-North Journal of Cultural & Media Studies |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=484–499 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Horace |date=June 1996 |title=Rebuilding the Pan African Movement: A Report on the 7th Pan African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489739 |journal=African Journal of Political Science |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |jstor=23489739 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Claybrook |first=M. Keith |date=June 2018 |title=David L. Horne: Biographical Reflections, A Living Pan African Scholar-Activist |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=130868454&site=ehost-live |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1–15 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Contee |first=Clarence G. |date=January 1972 |title=Du Bois, the NAACP, and the Pan-African Congress of 1919 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717070 |journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.2307/2717070 |jstor=2717070 |s2cid=150226798 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Cox |first=Courtland |date=April 1974 |title=Sixth Pan African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41066329 |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=32–34 |doi=10.1080/00064246.1974.11431403 |jstor=41066329 |s2cid=147619284 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. Du Bois |date=May 1919 |title=A Session of the Pan-African Congress, Paris, February 19–22, 1919 |url=https://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1295987016703125.pdf |journal=[[The Crisis]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=32}} * {{Cite journal |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. Du Bois |date=November 1921 |title=Manifesto to the League of Nations |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/1100-crisis-v23n01-w133.pdf |journal=[[The Crisis]] |volume=23 |issue=1}} == External links == rcoxfq0fjvnpjpg3dpbs3ai50oeklx5 63562 63561 2025-06-16T17:49:58Z DaSupremo 9 /* Sources */ Improve article 63562 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Pan-African Congress''' (PAC) be a regular series of meetings wich na first take place on de back of de Pan-African Conference dem hold insyd London in 1900. De Pan-African Congress first gain a reputation as a peacemaker for decolonization insyd Africa den insyd de West Indies, wey e make a significant advance for de [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-African]] cause. Insyd de beginning, na one of de group ein major demands be make dem end colonial rule den racial discrimination. Na e stand against imperialism wey na e demand human rights den equality of economic opportunity. De manifesto wey de Pan-African Congress give include de political den economic demands of de Congress for a new world context of international cooperation den de need make dem address de issues wey dey face Africa as a result of European colonization of chaw of de continent. Na congresses take place insyd 1919 insyd Paris; 1921 insyd Brussels, London den Paris; 1923 insyd Lisbon den London; 1927 insyd New York City; 1945 insyd Manchester; 1974 insyd Dar es Salaam; 1994 insyd Kampala; den 2014 insyd Johannesburg. == Background == [[File:W.E.B._Du_Bois_to_NAACP_January_1919_about_First_Pan_African_Congress.jpg|thumb|Letter from W.E.B. Du Bois to de NAACP January 1919 about planning de First Pan African Congress.]] Na dem create [[Pan-Africanism|Pan Africanism]] as a philosophy as early as de late 1700s, dem see thru de movements of abolition insyd both de United States den Britain.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 187.</ref> Na British writers den former slaves, [[Ottobah Cugoano]] den [[Olaudah Equiano]] create de foundations for Pan Africanism insyd English literature.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 188.</ref> Na French speakers, like [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], create de idea of [[Négritude]].<ref name=":0">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 189.</ref> Na dese ideas refute de inferiority of Black people.<ref name=":0" /> Na Pan Africanists believe dat na dem build both slavery den colonialism on negative attitudes towards people of African descent, wich in turn, contribute to racism.<ref name="Adejumobi2">{{Cite web|last=Adejumobi|first=Saheed|date=2008-07-30|title=The Pan-African Congresses, 1900–1945|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/pan-african-congresses-1900-1945/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=Black Past|language=en-US}}</ref> Na African Americans especially be frustrated plus dema slow progress towards racial equality insyd de [[United States]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> == 1919 Paris Congress (First) == === Delegates === Among de delegates be:<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHarrison,_Jr.1921|Harrison, Jr. 1921]], p. 84.</ref> * Alfredo Andrade, Portugal.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 141.</ref> * John Archer, Britain.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web|last=Reft|first=Ryan|date=2019-02-19|title=African-American History Month: First Pan-African Congress|url=https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2019/02/african-american-history-month-first-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=The Library of Congress}}</ref> * Matthew Virgil Boutte, United States.<ref name=":2">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDu_Bois1919|Du Bois 1919]].</ref> * Eliezer Cadet, Haiti * Gratien Candace.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 136.</ref> * Louise Chapoteau, France.<ref name=":2" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Helen Noble Curtis, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 114.</ref> * Blaise Diagne, [[Senegal]], den French Commissioner General of de Ministry of Colonies.<ref name=":3" /> * [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], NAACP delegate.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 135.</ref> * Henry Franklin-Bouillon, France.<ref name=":1" /> * M. Edmund Fitzgerald Fredericks, Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) delegate.<ref name=":1" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Tertullien Guilbaud, Minister of Haiti insyd France.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 119.</ref> * John Hope, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Ida Gibbs Hunt, United States.<ref name=":3" /> * Addie Hunton, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 7-8.</ref> * George Jackson, United States den Congo.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * William Jernagin, United States. * Charles D. B. King, [[Liberia]].<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 143.</ref> * Joseph Lagrosillière, Gaudeloupe.<ref name=":1" /> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Robert Russa Moton, United States. * Sol Plaatje, [[South Africa]]. (Possibly.)<ref>Geiss, ''The Pan-African Movement'', p.238.</ref> * Achille René-Boisneuf, Martinique.<ref name=":1" /> * Charles Edward Russell, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Benjamin F. Seldon, United States.<ref name=":2" /> * Roscoe Conklin Simmons, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Joel Elias Spingarn, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Cyrille Van Overbergh, Belgian Peace Commission.<ref>{{cite journal |author=W. E. B. Dubois |date=April 1919 |title=The Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/0400-crisis-v17n06-w102.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=17 |issue=6}}</ref> * William English Walling, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Richard R. Wright == 1921 Brussels, London den Paris Congress (Second) == === Delegates === * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Addie E. Dillard.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 8.</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], pp. 7–8.</ref> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Reed |first=David |date=2014 |title=Rayford W. Logan: The Evolution of a Pan-African Protege, 1921–1927 |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A367197623/AONE?u=txshrpub100124&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=ee293e77 |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=31 |url-access=subscription |via=Gale Academic OneFile}}</ref> * Albert Marryshow, Grenada.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFBogues2011|Bogues 2011]], p. 488.</ref> == 1923 Lisbon den London Congress (Third)== Insyd 1923, na dem hold de Third Pan-African Congress insyd London den insyd Lisbon. Na Helen Noble Curtis be an important planner of de Lisbon event, wich na e be smaller dan de odas.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 125.</ref> Na dem hold de London Congress at Denison House.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 121.</ref> Na dis meeting sanso repeat de demands such as self-rule, de problems insyd de Diaspora den de African-European relationship.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMboukou1983|Mboukou 1983]], p. 276.</ref> == 1927 New York City Congress (Fourth) == === Event === Na dem hold de opening meeting at St. Mark's Methodist Church den de Headquarters remain at de Grace Congregational Church.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-22|title=Negro Experts Attend Pan-African Congress Opening in New York|pages=3|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135167/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na der be about 208 delegates wey komot de United States den oda countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na low attendance from British den French colonies be secof government travel restrictions.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na William Pickens give a speech on de importance of worker solidarity during de opening session.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=For the Unity of Labor|pages=4|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125134913/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=Pickens Addresses Pan-African Congress|pages=6|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker-pickens-addresses-1927/121492715/|access-date=2023-05-23|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na oda speakers at de opening session include Chief Nana Amoah, Reginald G. Barrow, Dantès Bellegarde, James Francis Jenkins, H. K. Rakhit, Adolph Sixto, den T. Augustus Toote.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-27|title=Representative Delegation at Pan-African Meet|pages=3|work=The New York Age|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-new-york-age/88260140/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na later speeches be given by W. Tete Ansa, Helen Noble Curtis, Du Bois, Leo William Hansbury, Leslie Pinckney Hill, Georges Sylvain, den Charles H. Wesley.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite web|date=2022-06-01|title=DOCUMENT: Resolutions Passed by the Fourth Pan-African Congress, New York City, 1927|url=http://blackagendareport.com/document-resolutions-passed-fourth-pan-african-congress-new-york-city-1927|access-date=2023-05-23|website=Black Agenda Report|language=en}}</ref> De final speeches of de congress be given by H. H. Philips, Rayford Logan, den Y. Hikada on politics insyd Africa.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress Wants U.S. Navy to Leave Haiti|pages=1|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135529/|access-date=22 May 2023}} and {{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress to Ask U.S. Leave Haiti|pages=2|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135834/|access-date=22 May 2023|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na dem form committees during de event, wey dey include de creation of a resolution committee wey be headed by Bellegarde, Cannady, Du Bois, Hunton, den Reverdy C. Ransom.<ref name=":13" /> === Delegates === Na der be 208 delegates wey komot de United States den 10 different foreign countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na Africa be represented by delegates wey komot de [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Nigeria]], den [[Sierra Leone]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Dantès Bellegarde, Haiti.<ref name=":7" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Rayford Logan.<ref name=":22" /> * Richard B. Moore, American Negro Labor Congress.<ref name=":13" /> == 1945 Manchester Congress (Fifth) == === Attendees === Delegates Fifth Pan-African Congress dey include:<ref name="Sherwood2">{{Cite book|last=Sherwood|first=Marika|title=Manchester and the 1945 Pan-African Congress|publisher=Savannah Press|year=1995|isbn=0951972022|location=London}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite web|last=Høgsbjerg|first=Christian|date=12 April 2016|title=Remembering the Fifth Pan-African Congress|url=https://lucas.leeds.ac.uk/article/remembering-the-fifth-pan-african-congress-christian-hogsbjerg/|publisher=Leeds University Centre for African Studies (LUCAS)}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite web|date=14 October 2005|title=It began in Manchester — Manchester and The Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2005/10/14/151005_pan_african_congress_feature.shtml|publisher=BBC News; Black History Month}}</ref> * Antigua: ** Workers' Union – R.G. Small, W.R. Austin * Bahamas: ** R. Johnson, J. McCaskie, R.D. Watson, J.M. King * Barbados: ** Progressive League – E. de L. Yearwood ** Workers' Union – A. Mosley * Belize: ** Workers' League – H.T. Weir, M. Dawson, Gilbert Cargill, Horace Dawson * Bermuda: ** Workers' Association: G.R. Tucker, E. Richards * Gambia: ** Gambia Labour Union – I.M. Garba-Jahumpa ** National Council of Gambia – J. Downes-Thomas * Ghana: ** Aborigines' Rights Protection Society – Ashie Nikoi ** Friends of African Freedom Society – Bankole Awoonor Renner, Mrs Renner ** Gold Coast Farmers' Association – Ashie Nikoi, W.J. Kwesi Mould ** Railway Workers' Union – J.S. Annan<ref>{{Cite web|last=Annan|first=Citizen|date=2014-03-23|title=100 years of Nana Dr JS Annan, a life of service and social responsibility|url=https://citizenannan.wordpress.com/2014/03/23/100-years-of-nana-dr-js-annan-a-life-of-service-and-social-responsibility/|access-date=2023-05-17|website=Citizen Annan|language=en}}</ref> * Great Britain: ** African Progressive Association, London – Koi Larbi ** African Students' Union of Edinburgh – J.C deGraft Johnson ** Association of African Descent, Dublin – Jaja Wachuku ** Coloured Worker' Association – Ernest P. Marke, E.A. Aki-Emi, James Nortey ** International African Service Bureau – Peter Abrahams, Amy Ashwood Garvey, [[Kwame Nkrumah]], [[Haile Selassie|Ras T. Makonnen]], [[George Padmore]] ** League of African Peoples, Birmingham – Dr. Clarence J. Piliso ** The Negro Association, Manchester – C. Peart, M.I. Faro, Frank Niles, Dr. P. Milliard, F.W. Blaine ** The Negro Welfare Centre, Liverpool – E. E. Kwesi Kurankyi-Taylor, James Eggay Taylor,<ref>{{Cite web|last=James|first=Finding|title=Finding James|url=https://findingjames.net/|access-date=2023-05-18|website=Finding James|language=en-US}}</ref> Edwin J. DuPlan,<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2003|title=E J Du Plau, a welfare worker from Liverpool attends the Fifth...|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/du-plau-a-welfare-worker-from-liverpool-attends-the-fifth-news-photo/2666035|access-date=2023-05-24|website=Getty Images|language=en-gb}}</ref> C.D. Hyde, E. Asuquo Cowan ** The Young African Progressive League – Adeniran Ogunsanya, E. Brown, George Nelson, Raz Finni ** United Committee of Coloured and Colonial People Association, Cardiff – Aaron Albert Mossell, J.S. Andrew, Jim Nurse, H. Hassan, Basil Roderick ** West African Students' Union, London – Joe Appiah, F.O.B. Blaize, S. Ako Adjei, F.R. Kankam-Boadu * Grenada: ** Labour Party – S.J. Andrews * Guyana: ** African Development Association – W. Meighan, Dr. Peter Milliard ** Trades Union Council – D.M. Harper * Kenya: ** Kikuyu Central Association – [[Jomo Kenyatta]]. * Jamaica: ** People's National Party – L.A. Thoywell-Henry ** Trade Union Congress – Ken Hill<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-18|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League – Alma La Badie, L.A. Thoywell-Henry, V.G. Hamilton, K. Boxer * Liberia: ** Progressive Society – J. Tobie, Robert Broadhurst * Malawi: ** Nyasaland African Congress – Dr. Hastings Banda * Nigeria: ** Calabar Improvement League – Eyo B. Ndem ** National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons – Magnus Williams, F.B. Joseph ** Nigerian Youth Movement – [[Obafemi Awolowo]], H.O. Davies ** Trade Union Congress – A. Soyemi Coker * Saint Kitts and Nevis: ** St. Kitts Workers' League – R. Johnson ** St. Kitts and Nevis Trades and Labour Union – J.A. Linton, Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Bonita |date=1996 |title=Caribbean Women & Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489741 |journal=African Journal of Political Science / Revue Africaine de Science Politique |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=21–33 |issn=1027-0353 |jstor=23489741}}</ref> * Saint Lucia: ** Seamen's and Waterfront Workers' Union – J.M. King * Sierra Leone: ** Teachers' Union – Harry Sawyerr ** The People's Forum – Lamina Sankoh ** Trade Union Congress – I.T.A. Wallace Johnson ** West African Youth League – I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson * South Africa: ** African National Congress – Peter Abrahams, Makumalo (Mako) Hlubi<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 1945|title=Africa Speaks|url=https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b109-i072|access-date=2023-05-18|website=W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312)|publisher=Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries}}</ref> ** Na Davidson Don Tengo Jabavu be supposed to attend however along plus chaw of ein fellow South African delegates no fi secof issues obtaining passports. * Tanzania: ** S. Rahinda * Trinidad and Tobago: ** Federated Workers Trade Union – George Padmore ** Labour Party – Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6" /> ** Negro Welfare and Cultural Association – C. Lynch ** Oilfields Workers' Trade Union – John F.F. Rojas<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-19|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Trade Union Congress – Rupert Gittens ** West Indian National Party – Claude Lushington * Uganda: ** The Young Baganda – I. Yatu Fraternal delegates, observers den oda attendees include:<ref name="Sherwood2" /> * Committee of Cyprus Affairs – L. Joannou * Common Wealth – Miss Leeds * Communist Party of Great Britain – Len Johnson, Wilf Charles, Pat Devine<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirsch |first1=Shirin |last2=Brown |first2=Geoff |date=January 2023 |title=Breaking the 'colour bar': Len Johnson, Manchester and anti-racism |journal=Race & Class |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=36–58 |doi=10.1177/03063968221139993 |issn=0306-3968 |s2cid=254910173 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * Federation of Indian Associations - Nagendranath Gangulee * Federation of Indian Organisations in Britain - Surat Alley * Independent Labour Party - John McNair * Lanka Sama Samaja Party – Tikiri Banda Subasinghe * National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] * Negro Welfare Association – Miss Levy, R.B. Rose, A.B. Blaine * Somali Society – Ismail Dorbeh * Women's International League – N. Burton Oda Attendees include: Raphael Armattoe,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nkrumah|first=Kwame|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeswAAAACAAJ|title=Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah|date=2002|publisher=Panaf|isbn=978-0-901787-60-6|language=en}}</ref> Kojo Botsio,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bowman|first=Jack A. W.|title='Mak': Ras T Makonnen, the unrecognized hero of the Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.racearchive.org.uk/mak-ras-t-makonnen-the-unrecognized-hero-of-the-pan-african-movement/|access-date=2023-05-16|website=Race Archive|language=en-GB}}</ref> Cecil Belfield Clarke<ref name="Sherwood2" /> den Dudley Thompson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress 1945 and 1995 Archive – Archives Hub|url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb3228-34|access-date=2023-06-02|website=archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk}}</ref> == 1974 Dar es Salaam Congress (Sixth) == Na dem host de sixth Pan-African Congress, dem sanso know as "Sixth-PAC anaa 6PAC", insyd Dar es Salaam, Tanzania insyd June 1974.<ref name=":3" /> Na dis be de first time na de event take place insyd Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Na de event originally be proposed by Pauulu Kamarakafego make e challenge neocolonialism den apartheid.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFLevyHillClaude2008|Levy, Hill & Claude 2008]], p. 40.</ref> === Reception === Na de ''Los Angeles Times'' report say na de Congress be very divided wey often be too "militant".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ofari|first=Earl|date=1974-07-26|title=Pan-African Congress Failed to Fulfill Promise of Earlier Session|pages=37|work=The Los Angeles Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times/124862155/|access-date=2023-05-17|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> === Attendees === * Anna J. Cooper<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey<ref name=":4" /> == 1994 Kampala Congress (Seventh) == Na dem hold de seventh Pan-African Congress insyd Kampala, Uganda from April 3 to April 8, 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-14 |title=A Brief History of the Pan African Movement |url=https://panafricancongress.org/a-brief-history-of-the-pan-african-movement/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Pan African Congress |language=en-US}}</ref> Na de theme of de event be "Facing the Future in Unity, Social Progress and Democracy."<ref name=":5">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFCampbell1996|Campbell 1996]], p. 1.</ref> === Planning === Na dem call de seventh Pan African Congress by de Pan-African Movement of [[Nigeria]] wey na dem hope to hold de event insyd Lagos.<ref name=":8">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 161.</ref> Na dis group, however, want to limit attendance to "African people" per, no be Arab anaa white Africans.<ref name=":8" /> === Event === Na der be more dan 2,000 participants at de event, wich na include a Women's Pre-Congress meeting.<ref name=":5" /> === Delegates === * Ronald Muwenda Mutabi, ''Kabaka'' of Buganda.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 164.</ref> == 2014 Johannesburg Congress (Eighth) == Na dem hold de eighth Pan-African Congress at de [[University of the Witwatersrand]] from January 14 to January 16, 2014, insyd Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8th Pan-African Congress Calls for Council on African National Affairs|url=https://www.ituc-africa.org/8TH-PAN-AFRICAN-CONGRESS-CALLS-FOR.html|access-date=2023-05-01|website=ITUC-AFRICA / CSI-AFRIQUE|language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> === Sources === * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbDrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22George+Padmore+Pan-African+Revolutionary%22 |title=George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary |publisher=Ian Randle Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=9789766373504|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5kDwAAQBAJ |title=Pan-Africanism: A History |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4742-5430-4|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last1=Adi |first1=Hakim |last2=Sherwood | first2=Marika | author2-link= | title=The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress |publisher=New Beacon Books |year=1995 |isbn=1873201125 |location=London |pages=}} * {{Cite journal |last=Baraka |first=Imamu Amira |date=October 1974 |title=Some Questions About the Sixth Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41065763 |journal=Black Politics |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=42–46 |jstor=41065763 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bogues |first=Anthony |date=December 2011 |title=C.L.R. James, Pan-Africanism and the Black Radical Tradition |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&AN=69870596&site=ehost-live |journal=Critical Arts: A South-North Journal of Cultural & Media Studies |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=484–499 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Horace |date=June 1996 |title=Rebuilding the Pan African Movement: A Report on the 7th Pan African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489739 |journal=African Journal of Political Science |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |jstor=23489739 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Claybrook |first=M. Keith |date=June 2018 |title=David L. Horne: Biographical Reflections, A Living Pan African Scholar-Activist |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=130868454&site=ehost-live |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1–15 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Contee |first=Clarence G. |date=January 1972 |title=Du Bois, the NAACP, and the Pan-African Congress of 1919 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717070 |journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.2307/2717070 |jstor=2717070 |s2cid=150226798 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Cox |first=Courtland |date=April 1974 |title=Sixth Pan African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41066329 |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=32–34 |doi=10.1080/00064246.1974.11431403 |jstor=41066329 |s2cid=147619284 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. Du Bois |date=May 1919 |title=A Session of the Pan-African Congress, Paris, February 19–22, 1919 |url=https://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1295987016703125.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=32}} * {{Cite journal |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. Du Bois |date=November 1921 |title=Manifesto to the League of Nations |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/1100-crisis-v23n01-w133.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=23 |issue=1}} * {{Cite journal |last=Dunstan |first=Sarah Claire |date=Winter 2016 |title=Conflicts of Interest: The 1919 Pan-African Congress and the Wilsonian Moment |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/617638 |journal=Callaloo |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=133–150, 234 |doi=10.1353/cal.2016.0017 |s2cid=159668506 |id=ProQuest 1790184012 |url-access=subscription |via=Project MUSE}} * {{cite book|last=Dunstan|first=Sarah C|title=Race, Rights and Reform: Black Activism in the French Empire and the United States from World War I to Cold War|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2021|isbn=9781108764971|location=New York}} * {{Cite journal |last=Gearey |first=Adam |date=2012 |title=W. E. B. Du Bois' Ambiguous Politics of Liberation: Race, Marxism and Pan Africanism |url=https://journals.library.columbia.edu/index.php/cjrl/article/view/2261 |journal=Columbia Journal of Race and Law |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=265–272}} * {{Cite journal |last=Geiss |first=Imanuel |date=January 1969 |title=Pan-Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/259800 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=187–200 |doi=10.1177/002200946900400113 |jstor=259800 |s2cid=220873954 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Goodman|first=David|url=|title=No Easy Victories: African Liberation and American Activists Over a Half Century, 1950-2000|publisher=Africa World Press, Inc.|year=2007|isbn=978-1592215751|editor-last=Minter|editor-first=William|location=Trenton, New Jersey|chapter=The 1980s: The Anti-Apartheid Convergence|editor-last2=Hovey|editor-first2=Gail|editor-last3=Cobb, Jr.|editor-first3=Charles|editor-link3=Charles E. Cobb Jr.|chapter-url=http://www.noeasyvictories.org/select/nev_chap5.pdf}} == External links == jqtritep9r7hopkqh4rokb86x1p1mql 63563 63562 2025-06-16T17:51:00Z DaSupremo 9 /* Sources */ Improve article 63563 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Pan-African Congress''' (PAC) be a regular series of meetings wich na first take place on de back of de Pan-African Conference dem hold insyd London in 1900. De Pan-African Congress first gain a reputation as a peacemaker for decolonization insyd Africa den insyd de West Indies, wey e make a significant advance for de [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-African]] cause. Insyd de beginning, na one of de group ein major demands be make dem end colonial rule den racial discrimination. Na e stand against imperialism wey na e demand human rights den equality of economic opportunity. De manifesto wey de Pan-African Congress give include de political den economic demands of de Congress for a new world context of international cooperation den de need make dem address de issues wey dey face Africa as a result of European colonization of chaw of de continent. Na congresses take place insyd 1919 insyd Paris; 1921 insyd Brussels, London den Paris; 1923 insyd Lisbon den London; 1927 insyd New York City; 1945 insyd Manchester; 1974 insyd Dar es Salaam; 1994 insyd Kampala; den 2014 insyd Johannesburg. == Background == [[File:W.E.B._Du_Bois_to_NAACP_January_1919_about_First_Pan_African_Congress.jpg|thumb|Letter from W.E.B. Du Bois to de NAACP January 1919 about planning de First Pan African Congress.]] Na dem create [[Pan-Africanism|Pan Africanism]] as a philosophy as early as de late 1700s, dem see thru de movements of abolition insyd both de United States den Britain.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 187.</ref> Na British writers den former slaves, [[Ottobah Cugoano]] den [[Olaudah Equiano]] create de foundations for Pan Africanism insyd English literature.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 188.</ref> Na French speakers, like [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], create de idea of [[Négritude]].<ref name=":0">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 189.</ref> Na dese ideas refute de inferiority of Black people.<ref name=":0" /> Na Pan Africanists believe dat na dem build both slavery den colonialism on negative attitudes towards people of African descent, wich in turn, contribute to racism.<ref name="Adejumobi2">{{Cite web|last=Adejumobi|first=Saheed|date=2008-07-30|title=The Pan-African Congresses, 1900–1945|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/pan-african-congresses-1900-1945/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=Black Past|language=en-US}}</ref> Na African Americans especially be frustrated plus dema slow progress towards racial equality insyd de [[United States]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> == 1919 Paris Congress (First) == === Delegates === Among de delegates be:<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHarrison,_Jr.1921|Harrison, Jr. 1921]], p. 84.</ref> * Alfredo Andrade, Portugal.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 141.</ref> * John Archer, Britain.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web|last=Reft|first=Ryan|date=2019-02-19|title=African-American History Month: First Pan-African Congress|url=https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2019/02/african-american-history-month-first-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=The Library of Congress}}</ref> * Matthew Virgil Boutte, United States.<ref name=":2">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDu_Bois1919|Du Bois 1919]].</ref> * Eliezer Cadet, Haiti * Gratien Candace.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 136.</ref> * Louise Chapoteau, France.<ref name=":2" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Helen Noble Curtis, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 114.</ref> * Blaise Diagne, [[Senegal]], den French Commissioner General of de Ministry of Colonies.<ref name=":3" /> * [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], NAACP delegate.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 135.</ref> * Henry Franklin-Bouillon, France.<ref name=":1" /> * M. Edmund Fitzgerald Fredericks, Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) delegate.<ref name=":1" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Tertullien Guilbaud, Minister of Haiti insyd France.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 119.</ref> * John Hope, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Ida Gibbs Hunt, United States.<ref name=":3" /> * Addie Hunton, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 7-8.</ref> * George Jackson, United States den Congo.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * William Jernagin, United States. * Charles D. B. King, [[Liberia]].<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 143.</ref> * Joseph Lagrosillière, Gaudeloupe.<ref name=":1" /> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Robert Russa Moton, United States. * Sol Plaatje, [[South Africa]]. (Possibly.)<ref>Geiss, ''The Pan-African Movement'', p.238.</ref> * Achille René-Boisneuf, Martinique.<ref name=":1" /> * Charles Edward Russell, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Benjamin F. Seldon, United States.<ref name=":2" /> * Roscoe Conklin Simmons, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Joel Elias Spingarn, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Cyrille Van Overbergh, Belgian Peace Commission.<ref>{{cite journal |author=W. E. B. Dubois |date=April 1919 |title=The Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/0400-crisis-v17n06-w102.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=17 |issue=6}}</ref> * William English Walling, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Richard R. Wright == 1921 Brussels, London den Paris Congress (Second) == === Delegates === * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Addie E. Dillard.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 8.</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], pp. 7–8.</ref> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Reed |first=David |date=2014 |title=Rayford W. Logan: The Evolution of a Pan-African Protege, 1921–1927 |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A367197623/AONE?u=txshrpub100124&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=ee293e77 |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=31 |url-access=subscription |via=Gale Academic OneFile}}</ref> * Albert Marryshow, Grenada.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFBogues2011|Bogues 2011]], p. 488.</ref> == 1923 Lisbon den London Congress (Third)== Insyd 1923, na dem hold de Third Pan-African Congress insyd London den insyd Lisbon. Na Helen Noble Curtis be an important planner of de Lisbon event, wich na e be smaller dan de odas.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 125.</ref> Na dem hold de London Congress at Denison House.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 121.</ref> Na dis meeting sanso repeat de demands such as self-rule, de problems insyd de Diaspora den de African-European relationship.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMboukou1983|Mboukou 1983]], p. 276.</ref> == 1927 New York City Congress (Fourth) == === Event === Na dem hold de opening meeting at St. Mark's Methodist Church den de Headquarters remain at de Grace Congregational Church.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-22|title=Negro Experts Attend Pan-African Congress Opening in New York|pages=3|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135167/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na der be about 208 delegates wey komot de United States den oda countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na low attendance from British den French colonies be secof government travel restrictions.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na William Pickens give a speech on de importance of worker solidarity during de opening session.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=For the Unity of Labor|pages=4|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125134913/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=Pickens Addresses Pan-African Congress|pages=6|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker-pickens-addresses-1927/121492715/|access-date=2023-05-23|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na oda speakers at de opening session include Chief Nana Amoah, Reginald G. Barrow, Dantès Bellegarde, James Francis Jenkins, H. K. Rakhit, Adolph Sixto, den T. Augustus Toote.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-27|title=Representative Delegation at Pan-African Meet|pages=3|work=The New York Age|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-new-york-age/88260140/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na later speeches be given by W. Tete Ansa, Helen Noble Curtis, Du Bois, Leo William Hansbury, Leslie Pinckney Hill, Georges Sylvain, den Charles H. Wesley.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite web|date=2022-06-01|title=DOCUMENT: Resolutions Passed by the Fourth Pan-African Congress, New York City, 1927|url=http://blackagendareport.com/document-resolutions-passed-fourth-pan-african-congress-new-york-city-1927|access-date=2023-05-23|website=Black Agenda Report|language=en}}</ref> De final speeches of de congress be given by H. H. Philips, Rayford Logan, den Y. Hikada on politics insyd Africa.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress Wants U.S. Navy to Leave Haiti|pages=1|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135529/|access-date=22 May 2023}} and {{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress to Ask U.S. Leave Haiti|pages=2|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135834/|access-date=22 May 2023|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na dem form committees during de event, wey dey include de creation of a resolution committee wey be headed by Bellegarde, Cannady, Du Bois, Hunton, den Reverdy C. Ransom.<ref name=":13" /> === Delegates === Na der be 208 delegates wey komot de United States den 10 different foreign countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na Africa be represented by delegates wey komot de [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Nigeria]], den [[Sierra Leone]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Dantès Bellegarde, Haiti.<ref name=":7" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Rayford Logan.<ref name=":22" /> * Richard B. Moore, American Negro Labor Congress.<ref name=":13" /> == 1945 Manchester Congress (Fifth) == === Attendees === Delegates Fifth Pan-African Congress dey include:<ref name="Sherwood2">{{Cite book|last=Sherwood|first=Marika|title=Manchester and the 1945 Pan-African Congress|publisher=Savannah Press|year=1995|isbn=0951972022|location=London}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite web|last=Høgsbjerg|first=Christian|date=12 April 2016|title=Remembering the Fifth Pan-African Congress|url=https://lucas.leeds.ac.uk/article/remembering-the-fifth-pan-african-congress-christian-hogsbjerg/|publisher=Leeds University Centre for African Studies (LUCAS)}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite web|date=14 October 2005|title=It began in Manchester — Manchester and The Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2005/10/14/151005_pan_african_congress_feature.shtml|publisher=BBC News; Black History Month}}</ref> * Antigua: ** Workers' Union – R.G. Small, W.R. Austin * Bahamas: ** R. Johnson, J. McCaskie, R.D. Watson, J.M. King * Barbados: ** Progressive League – E. de L. Yearwood ** Workers' Union – A. Mosley * Belize: ** Workers' League – H.T. Weir, M. Dawson, Gilbert Cargill, Horace Dawson * Bermuda: ** Workers' Association: G.R. Tucker, E. Richards * Gambia: ** Gambia Labour Union – I.M. Garba-Jahumpa ** National Council of Gambia – J. Downes-Thomas * Ghana: ** Aborigines' Rights Protection Society – Ashie Nikoi ** Friends of African Freedom Society – Bankole Awoonor Renner, Mrs Renner ** Gold Coast Farmers' Association – Ashie Nikoi, W.J. Kwesi Mould ** Railway Workers' Union – J.S. Annan<ref>{{Cite web|last=Annan|first=Citizen|date=2014-03-23|title=100 years of Nana Dr JS Annan, a life of service and social responsibility|url=https://citizenannan.wordpress.com/2014/03/23/100-years-of-nana-dr-js-annan-a-life-of-service-and-social-responsibility/|access-date=2023-05-17|website=Citizen Annan|language=en}}</ref> * Great Britain: ** African Progressive Association, London – Koi Larbi ** African Students' Union of Edinburgh – J.C deGraft Johnson ** Association of African Descent, Dublin – Jaja Wachuku ** Coloured Worker' Association – Ernest P. Marke, E.A. Aki-Emi, James Nortey ** International African Service Bureau – Peter Abrahams, Amy Ashwood Garvey, [[Kwame Nkrumah]], [[Haile Selassie|Ras T. Makonnen]], [[George Padmore]] ** League of African Peoples, Birmingham – Dr. Clarence J. Piliso ** The Negro Association, Manchester – C. Peart, M.I. Faro, Frank Niles, Dr. P. Milliard, F.W. Blaine ** The Negro Welfare Centre, Liverpool – E. E. Kwesi Kurankyi-Taylor, James Eggay Taylor,<ref>{{Cite web|last=James|first=Finding|title=Finding James|url=https://findingjames.net/|access-date=2023-05-18|website=Finding James|language=en-US}}</ref> Edwin J. DuPlan,<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2003|title=E J Du Plau, a welfare worker from Liverpool attends the Fifth...|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/du-plau-a-welfare-worker-from-liverpool-attends-the-fifth-news-photo/2666035|access-date=2023-05-24|website=Getty Images|language=en-gb}}</ref> C.D. Hyde, E. Asuquo Cowan ** The Young African Progressive League – Adeniran Ogunsanya, E. Brown, George Nelson, Raz Finni ** United Committee of Coloured and Colonial People Association, Cardiff – Aaron Albert Mossell, J.S. Andrew, Jim Nurse, H. Hassan, Basil Roderick ** West African Students' Union, London – Joe Appiah, F.O.B. Blaize, S. Ako Adjei, F.R. Kankam-Boadu * Grenada: ** Labour Party – S.J. Andrews * Guyana: ** African Development Association – W. Meighan, Dr. Peter Milliard ** Trades Union Council – D.M. Harper * Kenya: ** Kikuyu Central Association – [[Jomo Kenyatta]]. * Jamaica: ** People's National Party – L.A. Thoywell-Henry ** Trade Union Congress – Ken Hill<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-18|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League – Alma La Badie, L.A. Thoywell-Henry, V.G. Hamilton, K. Boxer * Liberia: ** Progressive Society – J. Tobie, Robert Broadhurst * Malawi: ** Nyasaland African Congress – Dr. Hastings Banda * Nigeria: ** Calabar Improvement League – Eyo B. Ndem ** National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons – Magnus Williams, F.B. Joseph ** Nigerian Youth Movement – [[Obafemi Awolowo]], H.O. Davies ** Trade Union Congress – A. Soyemi Coker * Saint Kitts and Nevis: ** St. Kitts Workers' League – R. Johnson ** St. Kitts and Nevis Trades and Labour Union – J.A. Linton, Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Bonita |date=1996 |title=Caribbean Women & Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489741 |journal=African Journal of Political Science / Revue Africaine de Science Politique |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=21–33 |issn=1027-0353 |jstor=23489741}}</ref> * Saint Lucia: ** Seamen's and Waterfront Workers' Union – J.M. King * Sierra Leone: ** Teachers' Union – Harry Sawyerr ** The People's Forum – Lamina Sankoh ** Trade Union Congress – I.T.A. Wallace Johnson ** West African Youth League – I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson * South Africa: ** African National Congress – Peter Abrahams, Makumalo (Mako) Hlubi<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 1945|title=Africa Speaks|url=https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b109-i072|access-date=2023-05-18|website=W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312)|publisher=Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries}}</ref> ** Na Davidson Don Tengo Jabavu be supposed to attend however along plus chaw of ein fellow South African delegates no fi secof issues obtaining passports. * Tanzania: ** S. Rahinda * Trinidad and Tobago: ** Federated Workers Trade Union – George Padmore ** Labour Party – Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6" /> ** Negro Welfare and Cultural Association – C. Lynch ** Oilfields Workers' Trade Union – John F.F. Rojas<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-19|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Trade Union Congress – Rupert Gittens ** West Indian National Party – Claude Lushington * Uganda: ** The Young Baganda – I. Yatu Fraternal delegates, observers den oda attendees include:<ref name="Sherwood2" /> * Committee of Cyprus Affairs – L. Joannou * Common Wealth – Miss Leeds * Communist Party of Great Britain – Len Johnson, Wilf Charles, Pat Devine<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirsch |first1=Shirin |last2=Brown |first2=Geoff |date=January 2023 |title=Breaking the 'colour bar': Len Johnson, Manchester and anti-racism |journal=Race & Class |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=36–58 |doi=10.1177/03063968221139993 |issn=0306-3968 |s2cid=254910173 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * Federation of Indian Associations - Nagendranath Gangulee * Federation of Indian Organisations in Britain - Surat Alley * Independent Labour Party - John McNair * Lanka Sama Samaja Party – Tikiri Banda Subasinghe * National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] * Negro Welfare Association – Miss Levy, R.B. Rose, A.B. Blaine * Somali Society – Ismail Dorbeh * Women's International League – N. Burton Oda Attendees include: Raphael Armattoe,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nkrumah|first=Kwame|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeswAAAACAAJ|title=Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah|date=2002|publisher=Panaf|isbn=978-0-901787-60-6|language=en}}</ref> Kojo Botsio,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bowman|first=Jack A. W.|title='Mak': Ras T Makonnen, the unrecognized hero of the Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.racearchive.org.uk/mak-ras-t-makonnen-the-unrecognized-hero-of-the-pan-african-movement/|access-date=2023-05-16|website=Race Archive|language=en-GB}}</ref> Cecil Belfield Clarke<ref name="Sherwood2" /> den Dudley Thompson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress 1945 and 1995 Archive – Archives Hub|url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb3228-34|access-date=2023-06-02|website=archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk}}</ref> == 1974 Dar es Salaam Congress (Sixth) == Na dem host de sixth Pan-African Congress, dem sanso know as "Sixth-PAC anaa 6PAC", insyd Dar es Salaam, Tanzania insyd June 1974.<ref name=":3" /> Na dis be de first time na de event take place insyd Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Na de event originally be proposed by Pauulu Kamarakafego make e challenge neocolonialism den apartheid.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFLevyHillClaude2008|Levy, Hill & Claude 2008]], p. 40.</ref> === Reception === Na de ''Los Angeles Times'' report say na de Congress be very divided wey often be too "militant".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ofari|first=Earl|date=1974-07-26|title=Pan-African Congress Failed to Fulfill Promise of Earlier Session|pages=37|work=The Los Angeles Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times/124862155/|access-date=2023-05-17|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> === Attendees === * Anna J. Cooper<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey<ref name=":4" /> == 1994 Kampala Congress (Seventh) == Na dem hold de seventh Pan-African Congress insyd Kampala, Uganda from April 3 to April 8, 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-14 |title=A Brief History of the Pan African Movement |url=https://panafricancongress.org/a-brief-history-of-the-pan-african-movement/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Pan African Congress |language=en-US}}</ref> Na de theme of de event be "Facing the Future in Unity, Social Progress and Democracy."<ref name=":5">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFCampbell1996|Campbell 1996]], p. 1.</ref> === Planning === Na dem call de seventh Pan African Congress by de Pan-African Movement of [[Nigeria]] wey na dem hope to hold de event insyd Lagos.<ref name=":8">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 161.</ref> Na dis group, however, want to limit attendance to "African people" per, no be Arab anaa white Africans.<ref name=":8" /> === Event === Na der be more dan 2,000 participants at de event, wich na include a Women's Pre-Congress meeting.<ref name=":5" /> === Delegates === * Ronald Muwenda Mutabi, ''Kabaka'' of Buganda.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 164.</ref> == 2014 Johannesburg Congress (Eighth) == Na dem hold de eighth Pan-African Congress at de [[University of the Witwatersrand]] from January 14 to January 16, 2014, insyd Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8th Pan-African Congress Calls for Council on African National Affairs|url=https://www.ituc-africa.org/8TH-PAN-AFRICAN-CONGRESS-CALLS-FOR.html|access-date=2023-05-01|website=ITUC-AFRICA / CSI-AFRIQUE|language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> === Sources === * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbDrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22George+Padmore+Pan-African+Revolutionary%22 |title=George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary |publisher=Ian Randle Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=9789766373504|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5kDwAAQBAJ |title=Pan-Africanism: A History |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4742-5430-4|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last1=Adi |first1=Hakim |last2=Sherwood | first2=Marika | author2-link= | title=The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress |publisher=New Beacon Books |year=1995 |isbn=1873201125 |location=London |pages=}} * {{Cite journal |last=Baraka |first=Imamu Amira |date=October 1974 |title=Some Questions About the Sixth Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41065763 |journal=Black Politics |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=42–46 |jstor=41065763 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bogues |first=Anthony |date=December 2011 |title=C.L.R. 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De Pan-African Congress first gain a reputation as a peacemaker for decolonization insyd Africa den insyd de West Indies, wey e make a significant advance for de [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-African]] cause. Insyd de beginning, na one of de group ein major demands be make dem end colonial rule den racial discrimination. Na e stand against imperialism wey na e demand human rights den equality of economic opportunity. De manifesto wey de Pan-African Congress give include de political den economic demands of de Congress for a new world context of international cooperation den de need make dem address de issues wey dey face Africa as a result of European colonization of chaw of de continent. Na congresses take place insyd 1919 insyd Paris; 1921 insyd Brussels, London den Paris; 1923 insyd Lisbon den London; 1927 insyd New York City; 1945 insyd Manchester; 1974 insyd Dar es Salaam; 1994 insyd Kampala; den 2014 insyd Johannesburg. == Background == [[File:W.E.B._Du_Bois_to_NAACP_January_1919_about_First_Pan_African_Congress.jpg|thumb|Letter from W.E.B. Du Bois to de NAACP January 1919 about planning de First Pan African Congress.]] Na dem create [[Pan-Africanism|Pan Africanism]] as a philosophy as early as de late 1700s, dem see thru de movements of abolition insyd both de United States den Britain.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 187.</ref> Na British writers den former slaves, [[Ottobah Cugoano]] den [[Olaudah Equiano]] create de foundations for Pan Africanism insyd English literature.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 188.</ref> Na French speakers, like [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], create de idea of [[Négritude]].<ref name=":0">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 189.</ref> Na dese ideas refute de inferiority of Black people.<ref name=":0" /> Na Pan Africanists believe dat na dem build both slavery den colonialism on negative attitudes towards people of African descent, wich in turn, contribute to racism.<ref name="Adejumobi2">{{Cite web|last=Adejumobi|first=Saheed|date=2008-07-30|title=The Pan-African Congresses, 1900–1945|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/pan-african-congresses-1900-1945/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=Black Past|language=en-US}}</ref> Na African Americans especially be frustrated plus dema slow progress towards racial equality insyd de [[United States]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> == 1919 Paris Congress (First) == === Delegates === Among de delegates be:<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHarrison,_Jr.1921|Harrison, Jr. 1921]], p. 84.</ref> * Alfredo Andrade, Portugal.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 141.</ref> * John Archer, Britain.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web|last=Reft|first=Ryan|date=2019-02-19|title=African-American History Month: First Pan-African Congress|url=https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2019/02/african-american-history-month-first-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=The Library of Congress}}</ref> * Matthew Virgil Boutte, United States.<ref name=":2">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDu_Bois1919|Du Bois 1919]].</ref> * Eliezer Cadet, Haiti * Gratien Candace.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 136.</ref> * Louise Chapoteau, France.<ref name=":2" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Helen Noble Curtis, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 114.</ref> * Blaise Diagne, [[Senegal]], den French Commissioner General of de Ministry of Colonies.<ref name=":3" /> * [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], NAACP delegate.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 135.</ref> * Henry Franklin-Bouillon, France.<ref name=":1" /> * M. Edmund Fitzgerald Fredericks, Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) delegate.<ref name=":1" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Tertullien Guilbaud, Minister of Haiti insyd France.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 119.</ref> * John Hope, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Ida Gibbs Hunt, United States.<ref name=":3" /> * Addie Hunton, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 7-8.</ref> * George Jackson, United States den Congo.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * William Jernagin, United States. * Charles D. B. King, [[Liberia]].<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 143.</ref> * Joseph Lagrosillière, Gaudeloupe.<ref name=":1" /> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Robert Russa Moton, United States. * Sol Plaatje, [[South Africa]]. (Possibly.)<ref>Geiss, ''The Pan-African Movement'', p.238.</ref> * Achille René-Boisneuf, Martinique.<ref name=":1" /> * Charles Edward Russell, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Benjamin F. Seldon, United States.<ref name=":2" /> * Roscoe Conklin Simmons, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Joel Elias Spingarn, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Cyrille Van Overbergh, Belgian Peace Commission.<ref>{{cite journal |author=W. E. B. Dubois |date=April 1919 |title=The Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/0400-crisis-v17n06-w102.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=17 |issue=6}}</ref> * William English Walling, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Richard R. Wright == 1921 Brussels, London den Paris Congress (Second) == === Delegates === * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Addie E. Dillard.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 8.</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], pp. 7–8.</ref> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Reed |first=David |date=2014 |title=Rayford W. Logan: The Evolution of a Pan-African Protege, 1921–1927 |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A367197623/AONE?u=txshrpub100124&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=ee293e77 |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=31 |url-access=subscription |via=Gale Academic OneFile}}</ref> * Albert Marryshow, Grenada.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFBogues2011|Bogues 2011]], p. 488.</ref> == 1923 Lisbon den London Congress (Third)== Insyd 1923, na dem hold de Third Pan-African Congress insyd London den insyd Lisbon. Na Helen Noble Curtis be an important planner of de Lisbon event, wich na e be smaller dan de odas.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 125.</ref> Na dem hold de London Congress at Denison House.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 121.</ref> Na dis meeting sanso repeat de demands such as self-rule, de problems insyd de Diaspora den de African-European relationship.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMboukou1983|Mboukou 1983]], p. 276.</ref> == 1927 New York City Congress (Fourth) == === Event === Na dem hold de opening meeting at St. Mark's Methodist Church den de Headquarters remain at de Grace Congregational Church.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-22|title=Negro Experts Attend Pan-African Congress Opening in New York|pages=3|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135167/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na der be about 208 delegates wey komot de United States den oda countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na low attendance from British den French colonies be secof government travel restrictions.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na William Pickens give a speech on de importance of worker solidarity during de opening session.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=For the Unity of Labor|pages=4|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125134913/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=Pickens Addresses Pan-African Congress|pages=6|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker-pickens-addresses-1927/121492715/|access-date=2023-05-23|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na oda speakers at de opening session include Chief Nana Amoah, Reginald G. Barrow, Dantès Bellegarde, James Francis Jenkins, H. K. Rakhit, Adolph Sixto, den T. Augustus Toote.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-27|title=Representative Delegation at Pan-African Meet|pages=3|work=The New York Age|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-new-york-age/88260140/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na later speeches be given by W. Tete Ansa, Helen Noble Curtis, Du Bois, Leo William Hansbury, Leslie Pinckney Hill, Georges Sylvain, den Charles H. Wesley.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite web|date=2022-06-01|title=DOCUMENT: Resolutions Passed by the Fourth Pan-African Congress, New York City, 1927|url=http://blackagendareport.com/document-resolutions-passed-fourth-pan-african-congress-new-york-city-1927|access-date=2023-05-23|website=Black Agenda Report|language=en}}</ref> De final speeches of de congress be given by H. H. Philips, Rayford Logan, den Y. Hikada on politics insyd Africa.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress Wants U.S. Navy to Leave Haiti|pages=1|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135529/|access-date=22 May 2023}} and {{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress to Ask U.S. Leave Haiti|pages=2|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135834/|access-date=22 May 2023|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na dem form committees during de event, wey dey include de creation of a resolution committee wey be headed by Bellegarde, Cannady, Du Bois, Hunton, den Reverdy C. Ransom.<ref name=":13" /> === Delegates === Na der be 208 delegates wey komot de United States den 10 different foreign countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na Africa be represented by delegates wey komot de [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Nigeria]], den [[Sierra Leone]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Dantès Bellegarde, Haiti.<ref name=":7" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Rayford Logan.<ref name=":22" /> * Richard B. Moore, American Negro Labor Congress.<ref name=":13" /> == 1945 Manchester Congress (Fifth) == === Attendees === Delegates Fifth Pan-African Congress dey include:<ref name="Sherwood2">{{Cite book|last=Sherwood|first=Marika|title=Manchester and the 1945 Pan-African Congress|publisher=Savannah Press|year=1995|isbn=0951972022|location=London}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite web|last=Høgsbjerg|first=Christian|date=12 April 2016|title=Remembering the Fifth Pan-African Congress|url=https://lucas.leeds.ac.uk/article/remembering-the-fifth-pan-african-congress-christian-hogsbjerg/|publisher=Leeds University Centre for African Studies (LUCAS)}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite web|date=14 October 2005|title=It began in Manchester — Manchester and The Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2005/10/14/151005_pan_african_congress_feature.shtml|publisher=BBC News; Black History Month}}</ref> * Antigua: ** Workers' Union – R.G. Small, W.R. Austin * Bahamas: ** R. Johnson, J. McCaskie, R.D. Watson, J.M. King * Barbados: ** Progressive League – E. de L. Yearwood ** Workers' Union – A. Mosley * Belize: ** Workers' League – H.T. Weir, M. Dawson, Gilbert Cargill, Horace Dawson * Bermuda: ** Workers' Association: G.R. Tucker, E. Richards * Gambia: ** Gambia Labour Union – I.M. Garba-Jahumpa ** National Council of Gambia – J. Downes-Thomas * Ghana: ** Aborigines' Rights Protection Society – Ashie Nikoi ** Friends of African Freedom Society – Bankole Awoonor Renner, Mrs Renner ** Gold Coast Farmers' Association – Ashie Nikoi, W.J. Kwesi Mould ** Railway Workers' Union – J.S. Annan<ref>{{Cite web|last=Annan|first=Citizen|date=2014-03-23|title=100 years of Nana Dr JS Annan, a life of service and social responsibility|url=https://citizenannan.wordpress.com/2014/03/23/100-years-of-nana-dr-js-annan-a-life-of-service-and-social-responsibility/|access-date=2023-05-17|website=Citizen Annan|language=en}}</ref> * Great Britain: ** African Progressive Association, London – Koi Larbi ** African Students' Union of Edinburgh – J.C deGraft Johnson ** Association of African Descent, Dublin – Jaja Wachuku ** Coloured Worker' Association – Ernest P. Marke, E.A. Aki-Emi, James Nortey ** International African Service Bureau – Peter Abrahams, Amy Ashwood Garvey, [[Kwame Nkrumah]], [[Haile Selassie|Ras T. Makonnen]], [[George Padmore]] ** League of African Peoples, Birmingham – Dr. Clarence J. Piliso ** The Negro Association, Manchester – C. Peart, M.I. Faro, Frank Niles, Dr. P. Milliard, F.W. Blaine ** The Negro Welfare Centre, Liverpool – E. E. Kwesi Kurankyi-Taylor, James Eggay Taylor,<ref>{{Cite web|last=James|first=Finding|title=Finding James|url=https://findingjames.net/|access-date=2023-05-18|website=Finding James|language=en-US}}</ref> Edwin J. DuPlan,<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2003|title=E J Du Plau, a welfare worker from Liverpool attends the Fifth...|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/du-plau-a-welfare-worker-from-liverpool-attends-the-fifth-news-photo/2666035|access-date=2023-05-24|website=Getty Images|language=en-gb}}</ref> C.D. Hyde, E. Asuquo Cowan ** The Young African Progressive League – Adeniran Ogunsanya, E. Brown, George Nelson, Raz Finni ** United Committee of Coloured and Colonial People Association, Cardiff – Aaron Albert Mossell, J.S. Andrew, Jim Nurse, H. Hassan, Basil Roderick ** West African Students' Union, London – Joe Appiah, F.O.B. Blaize, S. Ako Adjei, F.R. Kankam-Boadu * Grenada: ** Labour Party – S.J. Andrews * Guyana: ** African Development Association – W. Meighan, Dr. Peter Milliard ** Trades Union Council – D.M. Harper * Kenya: ** Kikuyu Central Association – [[Jomo Kenyatta]]. * Jamaica: ** People's National Party – L.A. Thoywell-Henry ** Trade Union Congress – Ken Hill<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-18|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League – Alma La Badie, L.A. Thoywell-Henry, V.G. Hamilton, K. Boxer * Liberia: ** Progressive Society – J. Tobie, Robert Broadhurst * Malawi: ** Nyasaland African Congress – Dr. Hastings Banda * Nigeria: ** Calabar Improvement League – Eyo B. Ndem ** National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons – Magnus Williams, F.B. Joseph ** Nigerian Youth Movement – [[Obafemi Awolowo]], H.O. Davies ** Trade Union Congress – A. Soyemi Coker * Saint Kitts and Nevis: ** St. Kitts Workers' League – R. Johnson ** St. Kitts and Nevis Trades and Labour Union – J.A. Linton, Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Bonita |date=1996 |title=Caribbean Women & Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489741 |journal=African Journal of Political Science / Revue Africaine de Science Politique |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=21–33 |issn=1027-0353 |jstor=23489741}}</ref> * Saint Lucia: ** Seamen's and Waterfront Workers' Union – J.M. King * Sierra Leone: ** Teachers' Union – Harry Sawyerr ** The People's Forum – Lamina Sankoh ** Trade Union Congress – I.T.A. Wallace Johnson ** West African Youth League – I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson * South Africa: ** African National Congress – Peter Abrahams, Makumalo (Mako) Hlubi<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 1945|title=Africa Speaks|url=https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b109-i072|access-date=2023-05-18|website=W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312)|publisher=Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries}}</ref> ** Na Davidson Don Tengo Jabavu be supposed to attend however along plus chaw of ein fellow South African delegates no fi secof issues obtaining passports. * Tanzania: ** S. Rahinda * Trinidad and Tobago: ** Federated Workers Trade Union – George Padmore ** Labour Party – Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6" /> ** Negro Welfare and Cultural Association – C. Lynch ** Oilfields Workers' Trade Union – John F.F. Rojas<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-19|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Trade Union Congress – Rupert Gittens ** West Indian National Party – Claude Lushington * Uganda: ** The Young Baganda – I. Yatu Fraternal delegates, observers den oda attendees include:<ref name="Sherwood2" /> * Committee of Cyprus Affairs – L. Joannou * Common Wealth – Miss Leeds * Communist Party of Great Britain – Len Johnson, Wilf Charles, Pat Devine<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirsch |first1=Shirin |last2=Brown |first2=Geoff |date=January 2023 |title=Breaking the 'colour bar': Len Johnson, Manchester and anti-racism |journal=Race & Class |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=36–58 |doi=10.1177/03063968221139993 |issn=0306-3968 |s2cid=254910173 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * Federation of Indian Associations - Nagendranath Gangulee * Federation of Indian Organisations in Britain - Surat Alley * Independent Labour Party - John McNair * Lanka Sama Samaja Party – Tikiri Banda Subasinghe * National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] * Negro Welfare Association – Miss Levy, R.B. Rose, A.B. Blaine * Somali Society – Ismail Dorbeh * Women's International League – N. Burton Oda Attendees include: Raphael Armattoe,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nkrumah|first=Kwame|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeswAAAACAAJ|title=Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah|date=2002|publisher=Panaf|isbn=978-0-901787-60-6|language=en}}</ref> Kojo Botsio,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bowman|first=Jack A. W.|title='Mak': Ras T Makonnen, the unrecognized hero of the Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.racearchive.org.uk/mak-ras-t-makonnen-the-unrecognized-hero-of-the-pan-african-movement/|access-date=2023-05-16|website=Race Archive|language=en-GB}}</ref> Cecil Belfield Clarke<ref name="Sherwood2" /> den Dudley Thompson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress 1945 and 1995 Archive – Archives Hub|url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb3228-34|access-date=2023-06-02|website=archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk}}</ref> == 1974 Dar es Salaam Congress (Sixth) == Na dem host de sixth Pan-African Congress, dem sanso know as "Sixth-PAC anaa 6PAC", insyd Dar es Salaam, Tanzania insyd June 1974.<ref name=":3" /> Na dis be de first time na de event take place insyd Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Na de event originally be proposed by Pauulu Kamarakafego make e challenge neocolonialism den apartheid.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFLevyHillClaude2008|Levy, Hill & Claude 2008]], p. 40.</ref> === Reception === Na de ''Los Angeles Times'' report say na de Congress be very divided wey often be too "militant".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ofari|first=Earl|date=1974-07-26|title=Pan-African Congress Failed to Fulfill Promise of Earlier Session|pages=37|work=The Los Angeles Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times/124862155/|access-date=2023-05-17|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> === Attendees === * Anna J. Cooper<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey<ref name=":4" /> == 1994 Kampala Congress (Seventh) == Na dem hold de seventh Pan-African Congress insyd Kampala, Uganda from April 3 to April 8, 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-14 |title=A Brief History of the Pan African Movement |url=https://panafricancongress.org/a-brief-history-of-the-pan-african-movement/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Pan African Congress |language=en-US}}</ref> Na de theme of de event be "Facing the Future in Unity, Social Progress and Democracy."<ref name=":5">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFCampbell1996|Campbell 1996]], p. 1.</ref> === Planning === Na dem call de seventh Pan African Congress by de Pan-African Movement of [[Nigeria]] wey na dem hope to hold de event insyd Lagos.<ref name=":8">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 161.</ref> Na dis group, however, want to limit attendance to "African people" per, no be Arab anaa white Africans.<ref name=":8" /> === Event === Na der be more dan 2,000 participants at de event, wich na include a Women's Pre-Congress meeting.<ref name=":5" /> === Delegates === * Ronald Muwenda Mutabi, ''Kabaka'' of Buganda.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 164.</ref> == 2014 Johannesburg Congress (Eighth) == Na dem hold de eighth Pan-African Congress at de [[University of the Witwatersrand]] from January 14 to January 16, 2014, insyd Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8th Pan-African Congress Calls for Council on African National Affairs|url=https://www.ituc-africa.org/8TH-PAN-AFRICAN-CONGRESS-CALLS-FOR.html|access-date=2023-05-01|website=ITUC-AFRICA / CSI-AFRIQUE|language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> === Sources === * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbDrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22George+Padmore+Pan-African+Revolutionary%22 |title=George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary |publisher=Ian Randle Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=9789766373504|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5kDwAAQBAJ |title=Pan-Africanism: A History |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4742-5430-4|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last1=Adi |first1=Hakim |last2=Sherwood | first2=Marika | author2-link= | title=The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress |publisher=New Beacon Books |year=1995 |isbn=1873201125 |location=London |pages=}} * {{Cite journal |last=Baraka |first=Imamu Amira |date=October 1974 |title=Some Questions About the Sixth Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41065763 |journal=Black Politics |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=42–46 |jstor=41065763 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bogues |first=Anthony |date=December 2011 |title=C.L.R. 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Horne: Biographical Reflections, A Living Pan African Scholar-Activist |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=130868454&site=ehost-live |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1–15 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Contee |first=Clarence G. |date=January 1972 |title=Du Bois, the NAACP, and the Pan-African Congress of 1919 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717070 |journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.2307/2717070 |jstor=2717070 |s2cid=150226798 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Cox |first=Courtland |date=April 1974 |title=Sixth Pan African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41066329 |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=32–34 |doi=10.1080/00064246.1974.11431403 |jstor=41066329 |s2cid=147619284 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. Du Bois |date=May 1919 |title=A Session of the Pan-African Congress, Paris, February 19–22, 1919 |url=https://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1295987016703125.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=32}} * {{Cite journal |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. Du Bois |date=November 1921 |title=Manifesto to the League of Nations |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/1100-crisis-v23n01-w133.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=23 |issue=1}} * {{Cite journal |last=Dunstan |first=Sarah Claire |date=Winter 2016 |title=Conflicts of Interest: The 1919 Pan-African Congress and the Wilsonian Moment |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/617638 |journal=Callaloo |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=133–150, 234 |doi=10.1353/cal.2016.0017 |s2cid=159668506 |id=ProQuest 1790184012 |url-access=subscription |via=Project MUSE}} * {{cite book|last=Dunstan|first=Sarah C|title=Race, Rights and Reform: Black Activism in the French Empire and the United States from World War I to Cold War|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2021|isbn=9781108764971|location=New York}} * {{Cite journal |last=Gearey |first=Adam |date=2012 |title=W. E. B. Du Bois' Ambiguous Politics of Liberation: Race, Marxism and Pan Africanism |url=https://journals.library.columbia.edu/index.php/cjrl/article/view/2261 |journal=Columbia Journal of Race and Law |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=265–272}} * {{Cite journal |last=Geiss |first=Imanuel |date=January 1969 |title=Pan-Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/259800 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=187–200 |doi=10.1177/002200946900400113 |jstor=259800 |s2cid=220873954 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Goodman|first=David|url=|title=No Easy Victories: African Liberation and American Activists Over a Half Century, 1950-2000|publisher=Africa World Press, Inc.|year=2007|isbn=978-1592215751|editor-last=Minter|editor-first=William|location=Trenton, New Jersey|chapter=The 1980s: The Anti-Apartheid Convergence|editor-last2=Hovey|editor-first2=Gail|editor-last3=Cobb, Jr.|editor-first3=Charles|chapter-url=http://www.noeasyvictories.org/select/nev_chap5.pdf}} * {{Cite book|last=Harrison, Jr.|first=William Henry|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/57181/57181-h/57181-h.htm|title=Colored Girls' and Boy's Inspiring United States History and a Heart to Heart Talk about White Folks|year=1921|via=Project Gutenberg}} * {{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=Sylvia |date=April 1974 |title=Sixth Pan African Congress: Progress Report on Congress Organizing |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41066330 |journal=African Liberation |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=35–39 |jstor=41066330 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Hodder |first=Jake |date=Spring 2021 |title=The Elusive History of the Pan-African Congress, 1919–27 |url=https://academic.oup.com/hwj/article/91/1/113/6288529 |journal=History Workshop Journal |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=113–131 |doi=10.1093/hwj/dbaa032 |via=Oxford Academic |doi-access=free}} * {{cite book|last1=Kirschke|first1=Amy|title=African Diasporas in the New and Old Worlds: Consciousness and Imagination|date=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008806|editor1-last=Benesch|editor1-first=Klaus|chapter=Du Bois, The Crisis and Images of Africa and the Diaspora|editor2=Geneviève Fabre|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AazP5n2oJYUC&q=%22Palais%20Mondial%22%20%22pan-african%20conference%22&pg=PA246}} * {{Cite journal |last=Kodi |first=M.W. |date=1984 |title=The 1921 Pan-African Congress at Brussels: A Background to Belgian Pressures |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24328489 |journal=Transafrican Journal of History |volume=13 |pages=48–73 |jstor=24328489 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Levy |first1=La TaSha |last2=Hill |first2=Sylvia |last3=Claude |first3=Judy |date=Winter 2008 |title=Rethinking Pan-Africanism for the 21st Century |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41069282 |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=39–47 |doi=10.1080/00064246.2008.11413420 |jstor=41069282 |s2cid=146626722 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David Levering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BU4vH95YySgC&q=david+lewis+web+du+bois|title=W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography|publisher=Holt Paperbacks|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8050-8805-2|location=New York}} * {{Cite journal |last=Logan |first=Rayford Whittingham |date=Summer 1965 |title=The Historical Aspects of Pan-Africanism: A Personal Chronicle |url=https://www.freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/Black%20Liberation%20Disk/Black%20Power!/SugahData/Essays/Logan.S.pdf |journal=African Forum |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=90–104 |via=Freedom Archive}} * {{Cite journal |last=Mboukou |first=Alexandre |date=March 1983 |title=The Pan African Movement, 1900–1945: A Study in Leadership Conflicts Among the Disciples of Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784289 |journal=Journal of Black Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=275–288 |doi=10.1177/002193478301300302 |jstor=2784289 |s2cid=144410438 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Moore |first=Laura |date=Winter 2018 |title='The Fighting Had Ceased But... Democracy Had Not Won': Helen Noble Curtis and the Rise of a Black International Feminism in World War I France |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711148 |journal=Journal of Women's History |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=109–133 |doi=10.1353/jowh.2018.0044 |s2cid=149526534 |url-access=subscription |via=Project MUSE}} == External links == j3o14g0rtghn63fxgtgya8ekhavao4t 63567 63564 2025-06-16T17:53:38Z DaSupremo 9 /* Sources */ Improve article 63567 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Pan-African Congress''' (PAC) be a regular series of meetings wich na first take place on de back of de Pan-African Conference dem hold insyd London in 1900. De Pan-African Congress first gain a reputation as a peacemaker for decolonization insyd Africa den insyd de West Indies, wey e make a significant advance for de [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-African]] cause. Insyd de beginning, na one of de group ein major demands be make dem end colonial rule den racial discrimination. Na e stand against imperialism wey na e demand human rights den equality of economic opportunity. De manifesto wey de Pan-African Congress give include de political den economic demands of de Congress for a new world context of international cooperation den de need make dem address de issues wey dey face Africa as a result of European colonization of chaw of de continent. Na congresses take place insyd 1919 insyd Paris; 1921 insyd Brussels, London den Paris; 1923 insyd Lisbon den London; 1927 insyd New York City; 1945 insyd Manchester; 1974 insyd Dar es Salaam; 1994 insyd Kampala; den 2014 insyd Johannesburg. == Background == [[File:W.E.B._Du_Bois_to_NAACP_January_1919_about_First_Pan_African_Congress.jpg|thumb|Letter from W.E.B. Du Bois to de NAACP January 1919 about planning de First Pan African Congress.]] Na dem create [[Pan-Africanism|Pan Africanism]] as a philosophy as early as de late 1700s, dem see thru de movements of abolition insyd both de United States den Britain.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 187.</ref> Na British writers den former slaves, [[Ottobah Cugoano]] den [[Olaudah Equiano]] create de foundations for Pan Africanism insyd English literature.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 188.</ref> Na French speakers, like [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], create de idea of [[Négritude]].<ref name=":0">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 189.</ref> Na dese ideas refute de inferiority of Black people.<ref name=":0" /> Na Pan Africanists believe dat na dem build both slavery den colonialism on negative attitudes towards people of African descent, wich in turn, contribute to racism.<ref name="Adejumobi2">{{Cite web|last=Adejumobi|first=Saheed|date=2008-07-30|title=The Pan-African Congresses, 1900–1945|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/pan-african-congresses-1900-1945/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=Black Past|language=en-US}}</ref> Na African Americans especially be frustrated plus dema slow progress towards racial equality insyd de [[United States]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> == 1919 Paris Congress (First) == === Delegates === Among de delegates be:<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHarrison,_Jr.1921|Harrison, Jr. 1921]], p. 84.</ref> * Alfredo Andrade, Portugal.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 141.</ref> * John Archer, Britain.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web|last=Reft|first=Ryan|date=2019-02-19|title=African-American History Month: First Pan-African Congress|url=https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2019/02/african-american-history-month-first-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=The Library of Congress}}</ref> * Matthew Virgil Boutte, United States.<ref name=":2">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDu_Bois1919|Du Bois 1919]].</ref> * Eliezer Cadet, Haiti * Gratien Candace.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 136.</ref> * Louise Chapoteau, France.<ref name=":2" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Helen Noble Curtis, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 114.</ref> * Blaise Diagne, [[Senegal]], den French Commissioner General of de Ministry of Colonies.<ref name=":3" /> * [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], NAACP delegate.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 135.</ref> * Henry Franklin-Bouillon, France.<ref name=":1" /> * M. Edmund Fitzgerald Fredericks, Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) delegate.<ref name=":1" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Tertullien Guilbaud, Minister of Haiti insyd France.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 119.</ref> * John Hope, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Ida Gibbs Hunt, United States.<ref name=":3" /> * Addie Hunton, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 7-8.</ref> * George Jackson, United States den Congo.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * William Jernagin, United States. * Charles D. B. King, [[Liberia]].<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 143.</ref> * Joseph Lagrosillière, Gaudeloupe.<ref name=":1" /> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Robert Russa Moton, United States. * Sol Plaatje, [[South Africa]]. (Possibly.)<ref>Geiss, ''The Pan-African Movement'', p.238.</ref> * Achille René-Boisneuf, Martinique.<ref name=":1" /> * Charles Edward Russell, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Benjamin F. Seldon, United States.<ref name=":2" /> * Roscoe Conklin Simmons, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Joel Elias Spingarn, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Cyrille Van Overbergh, Belgian Peace Commission.<ref>{{cite journal |author=W. E. B. Dubois |date=April 1919 |title=The Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/0400-crisis-v17n06-w102.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=17 |issue=6}}</ref> * William English Walling, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Richard R. Wright == 1921 Brussels, London den Paris Congress (Second) == === Delegates === * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Addie E. Dillard.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 8.</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], pp. 7–8.</ref> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Reed |first=David |date=2014 |title=Rayford W. Logan: The Evolution of a Pan-African Protege, 1921–1927 |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A367197623/AONE?u=txshrpub100124&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=ee293e77 |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=31 |url-access=subscription |via=Gale Academic OneFile}}</ref> * Albert Marryshow, Grenada.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFBogues2011|Bogues 2011]], p. 488.</ref> == 1923 Lisbon den London Congress (Third)== Insyd 1923, na dem hold de Third Pan-African Congress insyd London den insyd Lisbon. Na Helen Noble Curtis be an important planner of de Lisbon event, wich na e be smaller dan de odas.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 125.</ref> Na dem hold de London Congress at Denison House.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 121.</ref> Na dis meeting sanso repeat de demands such as self-rule, de problems insyd de Diaspora den de African-European relationship.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMboukou1983|Mboukou 1983]], p. 276.</ref> == 1927 New York City Congress (Fourth) == === Event === Na dem hold de opening meeting at St. Mark's Methodist Church den de Headquarters remain at de Grace Congregational Church.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-22|title=Negro Experts Attend Pan-African Congress Opening in New York|pages=3|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135167/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na der be about 208 delegates wey komot de United States den oda countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na low attendance from British den French colonies be secof government travel restrictions.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na William Pickens give a speech on de importance of worker solidarity during de opening session.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=For the Unity of Labor|pages=4|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125134913/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=Pickens Addresses Pan-African Congress|pages=6|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker-pickens-addresses-1927/121492715/|access-date=2023-05-23|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na oda speakers at de opening session include Chief Nana Amoah, Reginald G. Barrow, Dantès Bellegarde, James Francis Jenkins, H. K. Rakhit, Adolph Sixto, den T. Augustus Toote.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-27|title=Representative Delegation at Pan-African Meet|pages=3|work=The New York Age|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-new-york-age/88260140/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na later speeches be given by W. Tete Ansa, Helen Noble Curtis, Du Bois, Leo William Hansbury, Leslie Pinckney Hill, Georges Sylvain, den Charles H. Wesley.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite web|date=2022-06-01|title=DOCUMENT: Resolutions Passed by the Fourth Pan-African Congress, New York City, 1927|url=http://blackagendareport.com/document-resolutions-passed-fourth-pan-african-congress-new-york-city-1927|access-date=2023-05-23|website=Black Agenda Report|language=en}}</ref> De final speeches of de congress be given by H. H. Philips, Rayford Logan, den Y. Hikada on politics insyd Africa.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress Wants U.S. Navy to Leave Haiti|pages=1|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135529/|access-date=22 May 2023}} and {{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress to Ask U.S. Leave Haiti|pages=2|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135834/|access-date=22 May 2023|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na dem form committees during de event, wey dey include de creation of a resolution committee wey be headed by Bellegarde, Cannady, Du Bois, Hunton, den Reverdy C. Ransom.<ref name=":13" /> === Delegates === Na der be 208 delegates wey komot de United States den 10 different foreign countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na Africa be represented by delegates wey komot de [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Nigeria]], den [[Sierra Leone]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Dantès Bellegarde, Haiti.<ref name=":7" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Rayford Logan.<ref name=":22" /> * Richard B. Moore, American Negro Labor Congress.<ref name=":13" /> == 1945 Manchester Congress (Fifth) == === Attendees === Delegates Fifth Pan-African Congress dey include:<ref name="Sherwood2">{{Cite book|last=Sherwood|first=Marika|title=Manchester and the 1945 Pan-African Congress|publisher=Savannah Press|year=1995|isbn=0951972022|location=London}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite web|last=Høgsbjerg|first=Christian|date=12 April 2016|title=Remembering the Fifth Pan-African Congress|url=https://lucas.leeds.ac.uk/article/remembering-the-fifth-pan-african-congress-christian-hogsbjerg/|publisher=Leeds University Centre for African Studies (LUCAS)}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite web|date=14 October 2005|title=It began in Manchester — Manchester and The Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2005/10/14/151005_pan_african_congress_feature.shtml|publisher=BBC News; Black History Month}}</ref> * Antigua: ** Workers' Union – R.G. Small, W.R. Austin * Bahamas: ** R. Johnson, J. McCaskie, R.D. Watson, J.M. King * Barbados: ** Progressive League – E. de L. Yearwood ** Workers' Union – A. Mosley * Belize: ** Workers' League – H.T. Weir, M. Dawson, Gilbert Cargill, Horace Dawson * Bermuda: ** Workers' Association: G.R. Tucker, E. Richards * Gambia: ** Gambia Labour Union – I.M. Garba-Jahumpa ** National Council of Gambia – J. Downes-Thomas * Ghana: ** Aborigines' Rights Protection Society – Ashie Nikoi ** Friends of African Freedom Society – Bankole Awoonor Renner, Mrs Renner ** Gold Coast Farmers' Association – Ashie Nikoi, W.J. Kwesi Mould ** Railway Workers' Union – J.S. Annan<ref>{{Cite web|last=Annan|first=Citizen|date=2014-03-23|title=100 years of Nana Dr JS Annan, a life of service and social responsibility|url=https://citizenannan.wordpress.com/2014/03/23/100-years-of-nana-dr-js-annan-a-life-of-service-and-social-responsibility/|access-date=2023-05-17|website=Citizen Annan|language=en}}</ref> * Great Britain: ** African Progressive Association, London – Koi Larbi ** African Students' Union of Edinburgh – J.C deGraft Johnson ** Association of African Descent, Dublin – Jaja Wachuku ** Coloured Worker' Association – Ernest P. Marke, E.A. Aki-Emi, James Nortey ** International African Service Bureau – Peter Abrahams, Amy Ashwood Garvey, [[Kwame Nkrumah]], [[Haile Selassie|Ras T. Makonnen]], [[George Padmore]] ** League of African Peoples, Birmingham – Dr. Clarence J. Piliso ** The Negro Association, Manchester – C. Peart, M.I. Faro, Frank Niles, Dr. P. Milliard, F.W. Blaine ** The Negro Welfare Centre, Liverpool – E. E. Kwesi Kurankyi-Taylor, James Eggay Taylor,<ref>{{Cite web|last=James|first=Finding|title=Finding James|url=https://findingjames.net/|access-date=2023-05-18|website=Finding James|language=en-US}}</ref> Edwin J. DuPlan,<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2003|title=E J Du Plau, a welfare worker from Liverpool attends the Fifth...|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/du-plau-a-welfare-worker-from-liverpool-attends-the-fifth-news-photo/2666035|access-date=2023-05-24|website=Getty Images|language=en-gb}}</ref> C.D. Hyde, E. Asuquo Cowan ** The Young African Progressive League – Adeniran Ogunsanya, E. Brown, George Nelson, Raz Finni ** United Committee of Coloured and Colonial People Association, Cardiff – Aaron Albert Mossell, J.S. Andrew, Jim Nurse, H. Hassan, Basil Roderick ** West African Students' Union, London – Joe Appiah, F.O.B. Blaize, S. Ako Adjei, F.R. Kankam-Boadu * Grenada: ** Labour Party – S.J. Andrews * Guyana: ** African Development Association – W. Meighan, Dr. Peter Milliard ** Trades Union Council – D.M. Harper * Kenya: ** Kikuyu Central Association – [[Jomo Kenyatta]]. * Jamaica: ** People's National Party – L.A. Thoywell-Henry ** Trade Union Congress – Ken Hill<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-18|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League – Alma La Badie, L.A. Thoywell-Henry, V.G. Hamilton, K. Boxer * Liberia: ** Progressive Society – J. Tobie, Robert Broadhurst * Malawi: ** Nyasaland African Congress – Dr. Hastings Banda * Nigeria: ** Calabar Improvement League – Eyo B. Ndem ** National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons – Magnus Williams, F.B. Joseph ** Nigerian Youth Movement – [[Obafemi Awolowo]], H.O. Davies ** Trade Union Congress – A. Soyemi Coker * Saint Kitts and Nevis: ** St. Kitts Workers' League – R. Johnson ** St. Kitts and Nevis Trades and Labour Union – J.A. Linton, Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Bonita |date=1996 |title=Caribbean Women & Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489741 |journal=African Journal of Political Science / Revue Africaine de Science Politique |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=21–33 |issn=1027-0353 |jstor=23489741}}</ref> * Saint Lucia: ** Seamen's and Waterfront Workers' Union – J.M. King * Sierra Leone: ** Teachers' Union – Harry Sawyerr ** The People's Forum – Lamina Sankoh ** Trade Union Congress – I.T.A. Wallace Johnson ** West African Youth League – I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson * South Africa: ** African National Congress – Peter Abrahams, Makumalo (Mako) Hlubi<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 1945|title=Africa Speaks|url=https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b109-i072|access-date=2023-05-18|website=W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312)|publisher=Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries}}</ref> ** Na Davidson Don Tengo Jabavu be supposed to attend however along plus chaw of ein fellow South African delegates no fi secof issues obtaining passports. * Tanzania: ** S. Rahinda * Trinidad and Tobago: ** Federated Workers Trade Union – George Padmore ** Labour Party – Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6" /> ** Negro Welfare and Cultural Association – C. Lynch ** Oilfields Workers' Trade Union – John F.F. Rojas<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-19|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Trade Union Congress – Rupert Gittens ** West Indian National Party – Claude Lushington * Uganda: ** The Young Baganda – I. Yatu Fraternal delegates, observers den oda attendees include:<ref name="Sherwood2" /> * Committee of Cyprus Affairs – L. Joannou * Common Wealth – Miss Leeds * Communist Party of Great Britain – Len Johnson, Wilf Charles, Pat Devine<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirsch |first1=Shirin |last2=Brown |first2=Geoff |date=January 2023 |title=Breaking the 'colour bar': Len Johnson, Manchester and anti-racism |journal=Race & Class |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=36–58 |doi=10.1177/03063968221139993 |issn=0306-3968 |s2cid=254910173 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * Federation of Indian Associations - Nagendranath Gangulee * Federation of Indian Organisations in Britain - Surat Alley * Independent Labour Party - John McNair * Lanka Sama Samaja Party – Tikiri Banda Subasinghe * National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] * Negro Welfare Association – Miss Levy, R.B. Rose, A.B. Blaine * Somali Society – Ismail Dorbeh * Women's International League – N. Burton Oda Attendees include: Raphael Armattoe,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nkrumah|first=Kwame|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeswAAAACAAJ|title=Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah|date=2002|publisher=Panaf|isbn=978-0-901787-60-6|language=en}}</ref> Kojo Botsio,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bowman|first=Jack A. W.|title='Mak': Ras T Makonnen, the unrecognized hero of the Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.racearchive.org.uk/mak-ras-t-makonnen-the-unrecognized-hero-of-the-pan-african-movement/|access-date=2023-05-16|website=Race Archive|language=en-GB}}</ref> Cecil Belfield Clarke<ref name="Sherwood2" /> den Dudley Thompson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress 1945 and 1995 Archive – Archives Hub|url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb3228-34|access-date=2023-06-02|website=archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk}}</ref> == 1974 Dar es Salaam Congress (Sixth) == Na dem host de sixth Pan-African Congress, dem sanso know as "Sixth-PAC anaa 6PAC", insyd Dar es Salaam, Tanzania insyd June 1974.<ref name=":3" /> Na dis be de first time na de event take place insyd Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Na de event originally be proposed by Pauulu Kamarakafego make e challenge neocolonialism den apartheid.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFLevyHillClaude2008|Levy, Hill & Claude 2008]], p. 40.</ref> === Reception === Na de ''Los Angeles Times'' report say na de Congress be very divided wey often be too "militant".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ofari|first=Earl|date=1974-07-26|title=Pan-African Congress Failed to Fulfill Promise of Earlier Session|pages=37|work=The Los Angeles Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times/124862155/|access-date=2023-05-17|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> === Attendees === * Anna J. Cooper<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey<ref name=":4" /> == 1994 Kampala Congress (Seventh) == Na dem hold de seventh Pan-African Congress insyd Kampala, Uganda from April 3 to April 8, 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-14 |title=A Brief History of the Pan African Movement |url=https://panafricancongress.org/a-brief-history-of-the-pan-african-movement/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Pan African Congress |language=en-US}}</ref> Na de theme of de event be "Facing the Future in Unity, Social Progress and Democracy."<ref name=":5">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFCampbell1996|Campbell 1996]], p. 1.</ref> === Planning === Na dem call de seventh Pan African Congress by de Pan-African Movement of [[Nigeria]] wey na dem hope to hold de event insyd Lagos.<ref name=":8">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 161.</ref> Na dis group, however, want to limit attendance to "African people" per, no be Arab anaa white Africans.<ref name=":8" /> === Event === Na der be more dan 2,000 participants at de event, wich na include a Women's Pre-Congress meeting.<ref name=":5" /> === Delegates === * Ronald Muwenda Mutabi, ''Kabaka'' of Buganda.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 164.</ref> == 2014 Johannesburg Congress (Eighth) == Na dem hold de eighth Pan-African Congress at de [[University of the Witwatersrand]] from January 14 to January 16, 2014, insyd Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8th Pan-African Congress Calls for Council on African National Affairs|url=https://www.ituc-africa.org/8TH-PAN-AFRICAN-CONGRESS-CALLS-FOR.html|access-date=2023-05-01|website=ITUC-AFRICA / CSI-AFRIQUE|language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> === Sources === * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbDrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22George+Padmore+Pan-African+Revolutionary%22 |title=George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary |publisher=Ian Randle Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=9789766373504|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5kDwAAQBAJ |title=Pan-Africanism: A History |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4742-5430-4|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last1=Adi |first1=Hakim |last2=Sherwood | first2=Marika | author2-link= | title=The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress |publisher=New Beacon Books |year=1995 |isbn=1873201125 |location=London |pages=}} * {{Cite journal |last=Baraka |first=Imamu Amira |date=October 1974 |title=Some Questions About the Sixth Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41065763 |journal=Black Politics |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=42–46 |jstor=41065763 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bogues |first=Anthony |date=December 2011 |title=C.L.R. James, Pan-Africanism and the Black Radical Tradition |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&AN=69870596&site=ehost-live |journal=Critical Arts: A South-North Journal of Cultural & Media Studies |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=484–499 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Horace |date=June 1996 |title=Rebuilding the Pan African Movement: A Report on the 7th Pan African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489739 |journal=African Journal of Political Science |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |jstor=23489739 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Claybrook |first=M. Keith |date=June 2018 |title=David L. Horne: Biographical Reflections, A Living Pan African Scholar-Activist |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=130868454&site=ehost-live |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1–15 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Contee |first=Clarence G. |date=January 1972 |title=Du Bois, the NAACP, and the Pan-African Congress of 1919 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717070 |journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.2307/2717070 |jstor=2717070 |s2cid=150226798 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Cox |first=Courtland |date=April 1974 |title=Sixth Pan African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41066329 |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=32–34 |doi=10.1080/00064246.1974.11431403 |jstor=41066329 |s2cid=147619284 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. Du Bois |date=May 1919 |title=A Session of the Pan-African Congress, Paris, February 19–22, 1919 |url=https://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1295987016703125.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=32}} * {{Cite journal |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. Du Bois |date=November 1921 |title=Manifesto to the League of Nations |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/1100-crisis-v23n01-w133.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=23 |issue=1}} * {{Cite journal |last=Dunstan |first=Sarah Claire |date=Winter 2016 |title=Conflicts of Interest: The 1919 Pan-African Congress and the Wilsonian Moment |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/617638 |journal=Callaloo |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=133–150, 234 |doi=10.1353/cal.2016.0017 |s2cid=159668506 |id=ProQuest 1790184012 |url-access=subscription |via=Project MUSE}} * {{cite book|last=Dunstan|first=Sarah C|title=Race, Rights and Reform: Black Activism in the French Empire and the United States from World War I to Cold War|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2021|isbn=9781108764971|location=New York}} * {{Cite journal |last=Gearey |first=Adam |date=2012 |title=W. E. B. Du Bois' Ambiguous Politics of Liberation: Race, Marxism and Pan Africanism |url=https://journals.library.columbia.edu/index.php/cjrl/article/view/2261 |journal=Columbia Journal of Race and Law |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=265–272}} * {{Cite journal |last=Geiss |first=Imanuel |date=January 1969 |title=Pan-Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/259800 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=187–200 |doi=10.1177/002200946900400113 |jstor=259800 |s2cid=220873954 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Goodman|first=David|url=|title=No Easy Victories: African Liberation and American Activists Over a Half Century, 1950-2000|publisher=Africa World Press, Inc.|year=2007|isbn=978-1592215751|editor-last=Minter|editor-first=William|location=Trenton, New Jersey|chapter=The 1980s: The Anti-Apartheid Convergence|editor-last2=Hovey|editor-first2=Gail|editor-last3=Cobb, Jr.|editor-first3=Charles|chapter-url=http://www.noeasyvictories.org/select/nev_chap5.pdf}} * {{Cite book|last=Harrison, Jr.|first=William Henry|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/57181/57181-h/57181-h.htm|title=Colored Girls' and Boy's Inspiring United States History and a Heart to Heart Talk about White Folks|year=1921|via=Project Gutenberg}} * {{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=Sylvia |date=April 1974 |title=Sixth Pan African Congress: Progress Report on Congress Organizing |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41066330 |journal=African Liberation |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=35–39 |jstor=41066330 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Hodder |first=Jake |date=Spring 2021 |title=The Elusive History of the Pan-African Congress, 1919–27 |url=https://academic.oup.com/hwj/article/91/1/113/6288529 |journal=History Workshop Journal |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=113–131 |doi=10.1093/hwj/dbaa032 |via=Oxford Academic |doi-access=free}} * {{cite book|last1=Kirschke|first1=Amy|title=African Diasporas in the New and Old Worlds: Consciousness and Imagination|date=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008806|editor1-last=Benesch|editor1-first=Klaus|chapter=Du Bois, The Crisis and Images of Africa and the Diaspora|editor2=Geneviève Fabre|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AazP5n2oJYUC&q=%22Palais%20Mondial%22%20%22pan-african%20conference%22&pg=PA246}} * {{Cite journal |last=Kodi |first=M.W. |date=1984 |title=The 1921 Pan-African Congress at Brussels: A Background to Belgian Pressures |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24328489 |journal=Transafrican Journal of History |volume=13 |pages=48–73 |jstor=24328489 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Levy |first1=La TaSha |last2=Hill |first2=Sylvia |last3=Claude |first3=Judy |date=Winter 2008 |title=Rethinking Pan-Africanism for the 21st Century |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41069282 |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=39–47 |doi=10.1080/00064246.2008.11413420 |jstor=41069282 |s2cid=146626722 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=David Levering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BU4vH95YySgC&q=david+lewis+web+du+bois|title=W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography|publisher=Holt Paperbacks|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8050-8805-2|location=New York}} * {{Cite journal |last=Logan |first=Rayford Whittingham |date=Summer 1965 |title=The Historical Aspects of Pan-Africanism: A Personal Chronicle |url=https://www.freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/Black%20Liberation%20Disk/Black%20Power!/SugahData/Essays/Logan.S.pdf |journal=African Forum |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=90–104 |via=Freedom Archive}} * {{Cite journal |last=Mboukou |first=Alexandre |date=March 1983 |title=The Pan African Movement, 1900–1945: A Study in Leadership Conflicts Among the Disciples of Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784289 |journal=Journal of Black Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=275–288 |doi=10.1177/002193478301300302 |jstor=2784289 |s2cid=144410438 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Moore |first=Laura |date=Winter 2018 |title='The Fighting Had Ceased But... Democracy Had Not Won': Helen Noble Curtis and the Rise of a Black International Feminism in World War I France |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711148 |journal=Journal of Women's History |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=109–133 |doi=10.1353/jowh.2018.0044 |s2cid=149526534 |url-access=subscription |via=Project MUSE}} * {{Cite journal |last=Nidi |first=Emanuele |date=Summer 2023 |title=Rien pour la révolution, tout par l'éducation": The Talented Tenth at the Second Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/3060797706 |journal=European Journal of American Studies |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.4000/ejas.2034 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |id=ProQuest 3060797706 |url-access=subscription |via=ProQuest}} * {{cite book|last=Painter|first=Nell Irvin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXxlnr9h_tcC&dq=%22Standing%20at%20Armageddon%3A%20A%20Grassroots%20History%20of%20the%20Progressive%20Era%22&pg=PP24|title=Standing at Armageddon: A Grassroots History of the Progressive Era|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=2008|isbn=978-0-393-33192-9|location=New York|page=}} * {{Cite journal |last=Ratcliff |first=Anthony J. |date=March 2013 |title=The Radical Evolution of Du Boisian Pan-Africanism |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=89862750&site=eds-live&scope=site |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=151–170 |url-access=registration |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Rathbone |first=Richard |date=October 1995 |title=Pan-Africanism: 50 Years On |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hft&AN=503355092&site=ehost-live |journal=History Today |volume=45 |pages=6–9 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} == External links == 7j5nd5gncto6ahwfr410ic6zykl6wjj 63568 63567 2025-06-16T17:55:34Z DaSupremo 9 /* Sources */ Improve article 63568 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Pan-African Congress''' (PAC) be a regular series of meetings wich na first take place on de back of de Pan-African Conference dem hold insyd London in 1900. De Pan-African Congress first gain a reputation as a peacemaker for decolonization insyd Africa den insyd de West Indies, wey e make a significant advance for de [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-African]] cause. Insyd de beginning, na one of de group ein major demands be make dem end colonial rule den racial discrimination. Na e stand against imperialism wey na e demand human rights den equality of economic opportunity. De manifesto wey de Pan-African Congress give include de political den economic demands of de Congress for a new world context of international cooperation den de need make dem address de issues wey dey face Africa as a result of European colonization of chaw of de continent. Na congresses take place insyd 1919 insyd Paris; 1921 insyd Brussels, London den Paris; 1923 insyd Lisbon den London; 1927 insyd New York City; 1945 insyd Manchester; 1974 insyd Dar es Salaam; 1994 insyd Kampala; den 2014 insyd Johannesburg. == Background == [[File:W.E.B._Du_Bois_to_NAACP_January_1919_about_First_Pan_African_Congress.jpg|thumb|Letter from W.E.B. Du Bois to de NAACP January 1919 about planning de First Pan African Congress.]] Na dem create [[Pan-Africanism|Pan Africanism]] as a philosophy as early as de late 1700s, dem see thru de movements of abolition insyd both de United States den Britain.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 187.</ref> Na British writers den former slaves, [[Ottobah Cugoano]] den [[Olaudah Equiano]] create de foundations for Pan Africanism insyd English literature.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 188.</ref> Na French speakers, like [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], create de idea of [[Négritude]].<ref name=":0">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 189.</ref> Na dese ideas refute de inferiority of Black people.<ref name=":0" /> Na Pan Africanists believe dat na dem build both slavery den colonialism on negative attitudes towards people of African descent, wich in turn, contribute to racism.<ref name="Adejumobi2">{{Cite web|last=Adejumobi|first=Saheed|date=2008-07-30|title=The Pan-African Congresses, 1900–1945|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/pan-african-congresses-1900-1945/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=Black Past|language=en-US}}</ref> Na African Americans especially be frustrated plus dema slow progress towards racial equality insyd de [[United States]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> == 1919 Paris Congress (First) == === Delegates === Among de delegates be:<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHarrison,_Jr.1921|Harrison, Jr. 1921]], p. 84.</ref> * Alfredo Andrade, Portugal.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 141.</ref> * John Archer, Britain.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web|last=Reft|first=Ryan|date=2019-02-19|title=African-American History Month: First Pan-African Congress|url=https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2019/02/african-american-history-month-first-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=The Library of Congress}}</ref> * Matthew Virgil Boutte, United States.<ref name=":2">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDu_Bois1919|Du Bois 1919]].</ref> * Eliezer Cadet, Haiti * Gratien Candace.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 136.</ref> * Louise Chapoteau, France.<ref name=":2" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Helen Noble Curtis, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 114.</ref> * Blaise Diagne, [[Senegal]], den French Commissioner General of de Ministry of Colonies.<ref name=":3" /> * [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], NAACP delegate.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 135.</ref> * Henry Franklin-Bouillon, France.<ref name=":1" /> * M. Edmund Fitzgerald Fredericks, Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) delegate.<ref name=":1" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Tertullien Guilbaud, Minister of Haiti insyd France.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 119.</ref> * John Hope, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Ida Gibbs Hunt, United States.<ref name=":3" /> * Addie Hunton, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 7-8.</ref> * George Jackson, United States den Congo.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * William Jernagin, United States. * Charles D. B. King, [[Liberia]].<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 143.</ref> * Joseph Lagrosillière, Gaudeloupe.<ref name=":1" /> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Robert Russa Moton, United States. * Sol Plaatje, [[South Africa]]. (Possibly.)<ref>Geiss, ''The Pan-African Movement'', p.238.</ref> * Achille René-Boisneuf, Martinique.<ref name=":1" /> * Charles Edward Russell, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Benjamin F. Seldon, United States.<ref name=":2" /> * Roscoe Conklin Simmons, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Joel Elias Spingarn, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Cyrille Van Overbergh, Belgian Peace Commission.<ref>{{cite journal |author=W. E. B. Dubois |date=April 1919 |title=The Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/0400-crisis-v17n06-w102.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=17 |issue=6}}</ref> * William English Walling, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Richard R. Wright == 1921 Brussels, London den Paris Congress (Second) == === Delegates === * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Addie E. Dillard.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 8.</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], pp. 7–8.</ref> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Reed |first=David |date=2014 |title=Rayford W. Logan: The Evolution of a Pan-African Protege, 1921–1927 |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A367197623/AONE?u=txshrpub100124&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=ee293e77 |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=31 |url-access=subscription |via=Gale Academic OneFile}}</ref> * Albert Marryshow, Grenada.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFBogues2011|Bogues 2011]], p. 488.</ref> == 1923 Lisbon den London Congress (Third)== Insyd 1923, na dem hold de Third Pan-African Congress insyd London den insyd Lisbon. Na Helen Noble Curtis be an important planner of de Lisbon event, wich na e be smaller dan de odas.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 125.</ref> Na dem hold de London Congress at Denison House.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 121.</ref> Na dis meeting sanso repeat de demands such as self-rule, de problems insyd de Diaspora den de African-European relationship.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMboukou1983|Mboukou 1983]], p. 276.</ref> == 1927 New York City Congress (Fourth) == === Event === Na dem hold de opening meeting at St. Mark's Methodist Church den de Headquarters remain at de Grace Congregational Church.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-22|title=Negro Experts Attend Pan-African Congress Opening in New York|pages=3|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135167/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na der be about 208 delegates wey komot de United States den oda countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na low attendance from British den French colonies be secof government travel restrictions.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na William Pickens give a speech on de importance of worker solidarity during de opening session.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=For the Unity of Labor|pages=4|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125134913/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=Pickens Addresses Pan-African Congress|pages=6|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker-pickens-addresses-1927/121492715/|access-date=2023-05-23|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na oda speakers at de opening session include Chief Nana Amoah, Reginald G. Barrow, Dantès Bellegarde, James Francis Jenkins, H. K. Rakhit, Adolph Sixto, den T. Augustus Toote.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-27|title=Representative Delegation at Pan-African Meet|pages=3|work=The New York Age|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-new-york-age/88260140/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na later speeches be given by W. Tete Ansa, Helen Noble Curtis, Du Bois, Leo William Hansbury, Leslie Pinckney Hill, Georges Sylvain, den Charles H. Wesley.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite web|date=2022-06-01|title=DOCUMENT: Resolutions Passed by the Fourth Pan-African Congress, New York City, 1927|url=http://blackagendareport.com/document-resolutions-passed-fourth-pan-african-congress-new-york-city-1927|access-date=2023-05-23|website=Black Agenda Report|language=en}}</ref> De final speeches of de congress be given by H. H. Philips, Rayford Logan, den Y. Hikada on politics insyd Africa.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress Wants U.S. Navy to Leave Haiti|pages=1|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135529/|access-date=22 May 2023}} and {{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress to Ask U.S. Leave Haiti|pages=2|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135834/|access-date=22 May 2023|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na dem form committees during de event, wey dey include de creation of a resolution committee wey be headed by Bellegarde, Cannady, Du Bois, Hunton, den Reverdy C. Ransom.<ref name=":13" /> === Delegates === Na der be 208 delegates wey komot de United States den 10 different foreign countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na Africa be represented by delegates wey komot de [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Nigeria]], den [[Sierra Leone]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Dantès Bellegarde, Haiti.<ref name=":7" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Rayford Logan.<ref name=":22" /> * Richard B. Moore, American Negro Labor Congress.<ref name=":13" /> == 1945 Manchester Congress (Fifth) == === Attendees === Delegates Fifth Pan-African Congress dey include:<ref name="Sherwood2">{{Cite book|last=Sherwood|first=Marika|title=Manchester and the 1945 Pan-African Congress|publisher=Savannah Press|year=1995|isbn=0951972022|location=London}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite web|last=Høgsbjerg|first=Christian|date=12 April 2016|title=Remembering the Fifth Pan-African Congress|url=https://lucas.leeds.ac.uk/article/remembering-the-fifth-pan-african-congress-christian-hogsbjerg/|publisher=Leeds University Centre for African Studies (LUCAS)}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite web|date=14 October 2005|title=It began in Manchester — Manchester and The Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2005/10/14/151005_pan_african_congress_feature.shtml|publisher=BBC News; Black History Month}}</ref> * Antigua: ** Workers' Union – R.G. Small, W.R. Austin * Bahamas: ** R. Johnson, J. McCaskie, R.D. Watson, J.M. King * Barbados: ** Progressive League – E. de L. Yearwood ** Workers' Union – A. Mosley * Belize: ** Workers' League – H.T. Weir, M. Dawson, Gilbert Cargill, Horace Dawson * Bermuda: ** Workers' Association: G.R. Tucker, E. Richards * Gambia: ** Gambia Labour Union – I.M. Garba-Jahumpa ** National Council of Gambia – J. Downes-Thomas * Ghana: ** Aborigines' Rights Protection Society – Ashie Nikoi ** Friends of African Freedom Society – Bankole Awoonor Renner, Mrs Renner ** Gold Coast Farmers' Association – Ashie Nikoi, W.J. Kwesi Mould ** Railway Workers' Union – J.S. Annan<ref>{{Cite web|last=Annan|first=Citizen|date=2014-03-23|title=100 years of Nana Dr JS Annan, a life of service and social responsibility|url=https://citizenannan.wordpress.com/2014/03/23/100-years-of-nana-dr-js-annan-a-life-of-service-and-social-responsibility/|access-date=2023-05-17|website=Citizen Annan|language=en}}</ref> * Great Britain: ** African Progressive Association, London – Koi Larbi ** African Students' Union of Edinburgh – J.C deGraft Johnson ** Association of African Descent, Dublin – Jaja Wachuku ** Coloured Worker' Association – Ernest P. Marke, E.A. Aki-Emi, James Nortey ** International African Service Bureau – Peter Abrahams, Amy Ashwood Garvey, [[Kwame Nkrumah]], [[Haile Selassie|Ras T. Makonnen]], [[George Padmore]] ** League of African Peoples, Birmingham – Dr. Clarence J. Piliso ** The Negro Association, Manchester – C. Peart, M.I. Faro, Frank Niles, Dr. P. Milliard, F.W. Blaine ** The Negro Welfare Centre, Liverpool – E. E. Kwesi Kurankyi-Taylor, James Eggay Taylor,<ref>{{Cite web|last=James|first=Finding|title=Finding James|url=https://findingjames.net/|access-date=2023-05-18|website=Finding James|language=en-US}}</ref> Edwin J. DuPlan,<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2003|title=E J Du Plau, a welfare worker from Liverpool attends the Fifth...|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/du-plau-a-welfare-worker-from-liverpool-attends-the-fifth-news-photo/2666035|access-date=2023-05-24|website=Getty Images|language=en-gb}}</ref> C.D. Hyde, E. Asuquo Cowan ** The Young African Progressive League – Adeniran Ogunsanya, E. Brown, George Nelson, Raz Finni ** United Committee of Coloured and Colonial People Association, Cardiff – Aaron Albert Mossell, J.S. Andrew, Jim Nurse, H. Hassan, Basil Roderick ** West African Students' Union, London – Joe Appiah, F.O.B. Blaize, S. Ako Adjei, F.R. Kankam-Boadu * Grenada: ** Labour Party – S.J. Andrews * Guyana: ** African Development Association – W. Meighan, Dr. Peter Milliard ** Trades Union Council – D.M. Harper * Kenya: ** Kikuyu Central Association – [[Jomo Kenyatta]]. * Jamaica: ** People's National Party – L.A. Thoywell-Henry ** Trade Union Congress – Ken Hill<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-18|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League – Alma La Badie, L.A. Thoywell-Henry, V.G. Hamilton, K. Boxer * Liberia: ** Progressive Society – J. Tobie, Robert Broadhurst * Malawi: ** Nyasaland African Congress – Dr. Hastings Banda * Nigeria: ** Calabar Improvement League – Eyo B. Ndem ** National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons – Magnus Williams, F.B. Joseph ** Nigerian Youth Movement – [[Obafemi Awolowo]], H.O. Davies ** Trade Union Congress – A. Soyemi Coker * Saint Kitts and Nevis: ** St. Kitts Workers' League – R. Johnson ** St. Kitts and Nevis Trades and Labour Union – J.A. Linton, Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Bonita |date=1996 |title=Caribbean Women & Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489741 |journal=African Journal of Political Science / Revue Africaine de Science Politique |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=21–33 |issn=1027-0353 |jstor=23489741}}</ref> * Saint Lucia: ** Seamen's and Waterfront Workers' Union – J.M. King * Sierra Leone: ** Teachers' Union – Harry Sawyerr ** The People's Forum – Lamina Sankoh ** Trade Union Congress – I.T.A. Wallace Johnson ** West African Youth League – I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson * South Africa: ** African National Congress – Peter Abrahams, Makumalo (Mako) Hlubi<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 1945|title=Africa Speaks|url=https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b109-i072|access-date=2023-05-18|website=W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312)|publisher=Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries}}</ref> ** Na Davidson Don Tengo Jabavu be supposed to attend however along plus chaw of ein fellow South African delegates no fi secof issues obtaining passports. * Tanzania: ** S. Rahinda * Trinidad and Tobago: ** Federated Workers Trade Union – George Padmore ** Labour Party – Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6" /> ** Negro Welfare and Cultural Association – C. Lynch ** Oilfields Workers' Trade Union – John F.F. Rojas<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-19|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Trade Union Congress – Rupert Gittens ** West Indian National Party – Claude Lushington * Uganda: ** The Young Baganda – I. Yatu Fraternal delegates, observers den oda attendees include:<ref name="Sherwood2" /> * Committee of Cyprus Affairs – L. Joannou * Common Wealth – Miss Leeds * Communist Party of Great Britain – Len Johnson, Wilf Charles, Pat Devine<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirsch |first1=Shirin |last2=Brown |first2=Geoff |date=January 2023 |title=Breaking the 'colour bar': Len Johnson, Manchester and anti-racism |journal=Race & Class |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=36–58 |doi=10.1177/03063968221139993 |issn=0306-3968 |s2cid=254910173 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * Federation of Indian Associations - Nagendranath Gangulee * Federation of Indian Organisations in Britain - Surat Alley * Independent Labour Party - John McNair * Lanka Sama Samaja Party – Tikiri Banda Subasinghe * National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] * Negro Welfare Association – Miss Levy, R.B. Rose, A.B. Blaine * Somali Society – Ismail Dorbeh * Women's International League – N. Burton Oda Attendees include: Raphael Armattoe,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nkrumah|first=Kwame|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeswAAAACAAJ|title=Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah|date=2002|publisher=Panaf|isbn=978-0-901787-60-6|language=en}}</ref> Kojo Botsio,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bowman|first=Jack A. W.|title='Mak': Ras T Makonnen, the unrecognized hero of the Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.racearchive.org.uk/mak-ras-t-makonnen-the-unrecognized-hero-of-the-pan-african-movement/|access-date=2023-05-16|website=Race Archive|language=en-GB}}</ref> Cecil Belfield Clarke<ref name="Sherwood2" /> den Dudley Thompson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress 1945 and 1995 Archive – Archives Hub|url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb3228-34|access-date=2023-06-02|website=archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk}}</ref> == 1974 Dar es Salaam Congress (Sixth) == Na dem host de sixth Pan-African Congress, dem sanso know as "Sixth-PAC anaa 6PAC", insyd Dar es Salaam, Tanzania insyd June 1974.<ref name=":3" /> Na dis be de first time na de event take place insyd Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Na de event originally be proposed by Pauulu Kamarakafego make e challenge neocolonialism den apartheid.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFLevyHillClaude2008|Levy, Hill & Claude 2008]], p. 40.</ref> === Reception === Na de ''Los Angeles Times'' report say na de Congress be very divided wey often be too "militant".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ofari|first=Earl|date=1974-07-26|title=Pan-African Congress Failed to Fulfill Promise of Earlier Session|pages=37|work=The Los Angeles Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times/124862155/|access-date=2023-05-17|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> === Attendees === * Anna J. Cooper<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey<ref name=":4" /> == 1994 Kampala Congress (Seventh) == Na dem hold de seventh Pan-African Congress insyd Kampala, Uganda from April 3 to April 8, 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-14 |title=A Brief History of the Pan African Movement |url=https://panafricancongress.org/a-brief-history-of-the-pan-african-movement/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Pan African Congress |language=en-US}}</ref> Na de theme of de event be "Facing the Future in Unity, Social Progress and Democracy."<ref name=":5">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFCampbell1996|Campbell 1996]], p. 1.</ref> === Planning === Na dem call de seventh Pan African Congress by de Pan-African Movement of [[Nigeria]] wey na dem hope to hold de event insyd Lagos.<ref name=":8">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 161.</ref> Na dis group, however, want to limit attendance to "African people" per, no be Arab anaa white Africans.<ref name=":8" /> === Event === Na der be more dan 2,000 participants at de event, wich na include a Women's Pre-Congress meeting.<ref name=":5" /> === Delegates === * Ronald Muwenda Mutabi, ''Kabaka'' of Buganda.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 164.</ref> == 2014 Johannesburg Congress (Eighth) == Na dem hold de eighth Pan-African Congress at de [[University of the Witwatersrand]] from January 14 to January 16, 2014, insyd Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8th Pan-African Congress Calls for Council on African National Affairs|url=https://www.ituc-africa.org/8TH-PAN-AFRICAN-CONGRESS-CALLS-FOR.html|access-date=2023-05-01|website=ITUC-AFRICA / CSI-AFRIQUE|language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> === Sources === * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbDrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22George+Padmore+Pan-African+Revolutionary%22 |title=George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary |publisher=Ian Randle Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=9789766373504|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5kDwAAQBAJ |title=Pan-Africanism: A History |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4742-5430-4|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last1=Adi |first1=Hakim |last2=Sherwood | first2=Marika | author2-link= | title=The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress |publisher=New Beacon Books |year=1995 |isbn=1873201125 |location=London |pages=}} * {{Cite journal |last=Baraka |first=Imamu Amira |date=October 1974 |title=Some Questions About the Sixth Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41065763 |journal=Black Politics |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=42–46 |jstor=41065763 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bogues |first=Anthony |date=December 2011 |title=C.L.R. 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Democracy Had Not Won': Helen Noble Curtis and the Rise of a Black International Feminism in World War I France |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711148 |journal=Journal of Women's History |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=109–133 |doi=10.1353/jowh.2018.0044 |s2cid=149526534 |url-access=subscription |via=Project MUSE}} * {{Cite journal |last=Nidi |first=Emanuele |date=Summer 2023 |title=Rien pour la révolution, tout par l'éducation": The Talented Tenth at the Second Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/3060797706 |journal=European Journal of American Studies |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.4000/ejas.2034 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |id=ProQuest 3060797706 |url-access=subscription |via=ProQuest}} * {{cite book|last=Painter|first=Nell Irvin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXxlnr9h_tcC&dq=%22Standing%20at%20Armageddon%3A%20A%20Grassroots%20History%20of%20the%20Progressive%20Era%22&pg=PP24|title=Standing at Armageddon: A Grassroots History of the Progressive Era|publisher=W.W. 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McMaster University. * {{Cite journal |last=Ratcliff |first=Anthony J. |date=March 2013 |title=The Radical Evolution of Du Boisian Pan-Africanism |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=89862750&site=eds-live&scope=site |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=151–170 |url-access=registration |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Rathbone |first=Richard |date=October 1995 |title=Pan-Africanism: 50 Years On |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hft&AN=503355092&site=ehost-live |journal=History Today |volume=45 |pages=6–9 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Brian Russell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4pvFMqggIAC&pg=PR4|title=Artistic Ambassadors: Literary and International Representation of the New Negro Era|publisher=University of Virginia Press|year=2013|isbn=9780813933696}} * {{Cite journal |last=Said |first=Abdulkadir N. |date=June 1974 |title=The Sixth Pan African Congress: Black Unity: Coming of Age in Dar-es-Salaam |url=https://dh.howard.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=newdirections |journal=New Directions |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=1–6}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Worley |first1=H.F. |last2=Contee |first2=C.G. |date=April 1970 |title=The Worley Report on the Pan-African Congress of 1919 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716447 |journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=140–143 |doi=10.2307/2716447 |jstor=2716447 |s2cid=149559631 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Young |first=Kurt B. |date=June 2011 |title=Towards an 8th Pan-African Congress: The Evolution of the Race-Class Debate |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13569317.2011.575682 |journal=Journal of Political Ideologies |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=145–167 |doi=10.1080/13569317.2011.575682 |s2cid=145750311 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} == External links == 6ipljwrpr6z5wanpgdpthnhy1dowre0 63569 63568 2025-06-16T17:56:46Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63569 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Pan-African Congress''' (PAC) be a regular series of meetings wich na first take place on de back of de Pan-African Conference dem hold insyd London in 1900. De Pan-African Congress first gain a reputation as a peacemaker for decolonization insyd Africa den insyd de West Indies, wey e make a significant advance for de [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-African]] cause. Insyd de beginning, na one of de group ein major demands be make dem end colonial rule den racial discrimination. Na e stand against imperialism wey na e demand human rights den equality of economic opportunity. De manifesto wey de Pan-African Congress give include de political den economic demands of de Congress for a new world context of international cooperation den de need make dem address de issues wey dey face Africa as a result of European colonization of chaw of de continent. Na congresses take place insyd 1919 insyd Paris; 1921 insyd Brussels, London den Paris; 1923 insyd Lisbon den London; 1927 insyd New York City; 1945 insyd Manchester; 1974 insyd Dar es Salaam; 1994 insyd Kampala; den 2014 insyd Johannesburg. == Background == [[File:W.E.B._Du_Bois_to_NAACP_January_1919_about_First_Pan_African_Congress.jpg|thumb|Letter from W.E.B. Du Bois to de NAACP January 1919 about planning de First Pan African Congress.]] Na dem create [[Pan-Africanism|Pan Africanism]] as a philosophy as early as de late 1700s, dem see thru de movements of abolition insyd both de United States den Britain.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 187.</ref> Na British writers den former slaves, [[Ottobah Cugoano]] den [[Olaudah Equiano]] create de foundations for Pan Africanism insyd English literature.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 188.</ref> Na French speakers, like [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], create de idea of [[Négritude]].<ref name=":0">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 189.</ref> Na dese ideas refute de inferiority of Black people.<ref name=":0" /> Na Pan Africanists believe dat na dem build both slavery den colonialism on negative attitudes towards people of African descent, wich in turn, contribute to racism.<ref name="Adejumobi2">{{Cite web|last=Adejumobi|first=Saheed|date=2008-07-30|title=The Pan-African Congresses, 1900–1945|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/pan-african-congresses-1900-1945/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=Black Past|language=en-US}}</ref> Na African Americans especially be frustrated plus dema slow progress towards racial equality insyd de [[United States]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> == 1919 Paris Congress (First) == === Delegates === Among de delegates be:<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHarrison,_Jr.1921|Harrison, Jr. 1921]], p. 84.</ref> * Alfredo Andrade, Portugal.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 141.</ref> * John Archer, Britain.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web|last=Reft|first=Ryan|date=2019-02-19|title=African-American History Month: First Pan-African Congress|url=https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2019/02/african-american-history-month-first-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=The Library of Congress}}</ref> * Matthew Virgil Boutte, United States.<ref name=":2">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDu_Bois1919|Du Bois 1919]].</ref> * Eliezer Cadet, Haiti * Gratien Candace.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 136.</ref> * Louise Chapoteau, France.<ref name=":2" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Helen Noble Curtis, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 114.</ref> * Blaise Diagne, [[Senegal]], den French Commissioner General of de Ministry of Colonies.<ref name=":3" /> * [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], NAACP delegate.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 135.</ref> * Henry Franklin-Bouillon, France.<ref name=":1" /> * M. Edmund Fitzgerald Fredericks, Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) delegate.<ref name=":1" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Tertullien Guilbaud, Minister of Haiti insyd France.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 119.</ref> * John Hope, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Ida Gibbs Hunt, United States.<ref name=":3" /> * Addie Hunton, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 7-8.</ref> * George Jackson, United States den Congo.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * William Jernagin, United States. * Charles D. B. King, [[Liberia]].<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 143.</ref> * Joseph Lagrosillière, Gaudeloupe.<ref name=":1" /> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Robert Russa Moton, United States. * Sol Plaatje, [[South Africa]]. (Possibly.)<ref>Geiss, ''The Pan-African Movement'', p.238.</ref> * Achille René-Boisneuf, Martinique.<ref name=":1" /> * Charles Edward Russell, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Benjamin F. Seldon, United States.<ref name=":2" /> * Roscoe Conklin Simmons, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Joel Elias Spingarn, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Cyrille Van Overbergh, Belgian Peace Commission.<ref>{{cite journal |author=W. E. B. Dubois |date=April 1919 |title=The Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/0400-crisis-v17n06-w102.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=17 |issue=6}}</ref> * William English Walling, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Richard R. Wright == 1921 Brussels, London den Paris Congress (Second) == === Delegates === * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Addie E. Dillard.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 8.</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], pp. 7–8.</ref> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Reed |first=David |date=2014 |title=Rayford W. Logan: The Evolution of a Pan-African Protege, 1921–1927 |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A367197623/AONE?u=txshrpub100124&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=ee293e77 |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=31 |url-access=subscription |via=Gale Academic OneFile}}</ref> * Albert Marryshow, Grenada.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFBogues2011|Bogues 2011]], p. 488.</ref> == 1923 Lisbon den London Congress (Third)== Insyd 1923, na dem hold de Third Pan-African Congress insyd London den insyd Lisbon. Na Helen Noble Curtis be an important planner of de Lisbon event, wich na e be smaller dan de odas.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 125.</ref> Na dem hold de London Congress at Denison House.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 121.</ref> Na dis meeting sanso repeat de demands such as self-rule, de problems insyd de Diaspora den de African-European relationship.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMboukou1983|Mboukou 1983]], p. 276.</ref> == 1927 New York City Congress (Fourth) == === Event === Na dem hold de opening meeting at St. Mark's Methodist Church den de Headquarters remain at de Grace Congregational Church.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-22|title=Negro Experts Attend Pan-African Congress Opening in New York|pages=3|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135167/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na der be about 208 delegates wey komot de United States den oda countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na low attendance from British den French colonies be secof government travel restrictions.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na William Pickens give a speech on de importance of worker solidarity during de opening session.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=For the Unity of Labor|pages=4|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125134913/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=Pickens Addresses Pan-African Congress|pages=6|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker-pickens-addresses-1927/121492715/|access-date=2023-05-23|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na oda speakers at de opening session include Chief Nana Amoah, Reginald G. Barrow, Dantès Bellegarde, James Francis Jenkins, H. K. Rakhit, Adolph Sixto, den T. Augustus Toote.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-27|title=Representative Delegation at Pan-African Meet|pages=3|work=The New York Age|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-new-york-age/88260140/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na later speeches be given by W. Tete Ansa, Helen Noble Curtis, Du Bois, Leo William Hansbury, Leslie Pinckney Hill, Georges Sylvain, den Charles H. Wesley.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite web|date=2022-06-01|title=DOCUMENT: Resolutions Passed by the Fourth Pan-African Congress, New York City, 1927|url=http://blackagendareport.com/document-resolutions-passed-fourth-pan-african-congress-new-york-city-1927|access-date=2023-05-23|website=Black Agenda Report|language=en}}</ref> De final speeches of de congress be given by H. H. Philips, Rayford Logan, den Y. Hikada on politics insyd Africa.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress Wants U.S. Navy to Leave Haiti|pages=1|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135529/|access-date=22 May 2023}} and {{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress to Ask U.S. Leave Haiti|pages=2|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135834/|access-date=22 May 2023|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na dem form committees during de event, wey dey include de creation of a resolution committee wey be headed by Bellegarde, Cannady, Du Bois, Hunton, den Reverdy C. Ransom.<ref name=":13" /> === Delegates === Na der be 208 delegates wey komot de United States den 10 different foreign countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na Africa be represented by delegates wey komot de [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Nigeria]], den [[Sierra Leone]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Dantès Bellegarde, Haiti.<ref name=":7" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Rayford Logan.<ref name=":22" /> * Richard B. Moore, American Negro Labor Congress.<ref name=":13" /> == 1945 Manchester Congress (Fifth) == === Attendees === Delegates Fifth Pan-African Congress dey include:<ref name="Sherwood2">{{Cite book|last=Sherwood|first=Marika|title=Manchester and the 1945 Pan-African Congress|publisher=Savannah Press|year=1995|isbn=0951972022|location=London}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite web|last=Høgsbjerg|first=Christian|date=12 April 2016|title=Remembering the Fifth Pan-African Congress|url=https://lucas.leeds.ac.uk/article/remembering-the-fifth-pan-african-congress-christian-hogsbjerg/|publisher=Leeds University Centre for African Studies (LUCAS)}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite web|date=14 October 2005|title=It began in Manchester — Manchester and The Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2005/10/14/151005_pan_african_congress_feature.shtml|publisher=BBC News; Black History Month}}</ref> * Antigua: ** Workers' Union – R.G. Small, W.R. Austin * Bahamas: ** R. Johnson, J. McCaskie, R.D. Watson, J.M. King * Barbados: ** Progressive League – E. de L. Yearwood ** Workers' Union – A. Mosley * Belize: ** Workers' League – H.T. Weir, M. Dawson, Gilbert Cargill, Horace Dawson * Bermuda: ** Workers' Association: G.R. Tucker, E. Richards * Gambia: ** Gambia Labour Union – I.M. Garba-Jahumpa ** National Council of Gambia – J. Downes-Thomas * Ghana: ** Aborigines' Rights Protection Society – Ashie Nikoi ** Friends of African Freedom Society – Bankole Awoonor Renner, Mrs Renner ** Gold Coast Farmers' Association – Ashie Nikoi, W.J. Kwesi Mould ** Railway Workers' Union – J.S. Annan<ref>{{Cite web|last=Annan|first=Citizen|date=2014-03-23|title=100 years of Nana Dr JS Annan, a life of service and social responsibility|url=https://citizenannan.wordpress.com/2014/03/23/100-years-of-nana-dr-js-annan-a-life-of-service-and-social-responsibility/|access-date=2023-05-17|website=Citizen Annan|language=en}}</ref> * Great Britain: ** African Progressive Association, London – Koi Larbi ** African Students' Union of Edinburgh – J.C deGraft Johnson ** Association of African Descent, Dublin – Jaja Wachuku ** Coloured Worker' Association – Ernest P. Marke, E.A. Aki-Emi, James Nortey ** International African Service Bureau – Peter Abrahams, Amy Ashwood Garvey, [[Kwame Nkrumah]], [[Haile Selassie|Ras T. Makonnen]], [[George Padmore]] ** League of African Peoples, Birmingham – Dr. Clarence J. Piliso ** The Negro Association, Manchester – C. Peart, M.I. Faro, Frank Niles, Dr. P. Milliard, F.W. Blaine ** The Negro Welfare Centre, Liverpool – E. E. Kwesi Kurankyi-Taylor, James Eggay Taylor,<ref>{{Cite web|last=James|first=Finding|title=Finding James|url=https://findingjames.net/|access-date=2023-05-18|website=Finding James|language=en-US}}</ref> Edwin J. DuPlan,<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2003|title=E J Du Plau, a welfare worker from Liverpool attends the Fifth...|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/du-plau-a-welfare-worker-from-liverpool-attends-the-fifth-news-photo/2666035|access-date=2023-05-24|website=Getty Images|language=en-gb}}</ref> C.D. Hyde, E. Asuquo Cowan ** The Young African Progressive League – Adeniran Ogunsanya, E. Brown, George Nelson, Raz Finni ** United Committee of Coloured and Colonial People Association, Cardiff – Aaron Albert Mossell, J.S. Andrew, Jim Nurse, H. Hassan, Basil Roderick ** West African Students' Union, London – Joe Appiah, F.O.B. Blaize, S. Ako Adjei, F.R. Kankam-Boadu * Grenada: ** Labour Party – S.J. Andrews * Guyana: ** African Development Association – W. Meighan, Dr. Peter Milliard ** Trades Union Council – D.M. Harper * Kenya: ** Kikuyu Central Association – [[Jomo Kenyatta]]. * Jamaica: ** People's National Party – L.A. Thoywell-Henry ** Trade Union Congress – Ken Hill<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-18|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League – Alma La Badie, L.A. Thoywell-Henry, V.G. Hamilton, K. Boxer * Liberia: ** Progressive Society – J. Tobie, Robert Broadhurst * Malawi: ** Nyasaland African Congress – Dr. Hastings Banda * Nigeria: ** Calabar Improvement League – Eyo B. Ndem ** National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons – Magnus Williams, F.B. Joseph ** Nigerian Youth Movement – [[Obafemi Awolowo]], H.O. Davies ** Trade Union Congress – A. Soyemi Coker * Saint Kitts and Nevis: ** St. Kitts Workers' League – R. Johnson ** St. Kitts and Nevis Trades and Labour Union – J.A. Linton, Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Bonita |date=1996 |title=Caribbean Women & Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489741 |journal=African Journal of Political Science / Revue Africaine de Science Politique |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=21–33 |issn=1027-0353 |jstor=23489741}}</ref> * Saint Lucia: ** Seamen's and Waterfront Workers' Union – J.M. King * Sierra Leone: ** Teachers' Union – Harry Sawyerr ** The People's Forum – Lamina Sankoh ** Trade Union Congress – I.T.A. Wallace Johnson ** West African Youth League – I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson * South Africa: ** African National Congress – Peter Abrahams, Makumalo (Mako) Hlubi<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 1945|title=Africa Speaks|url=https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b109-i072|access-date=2023-05-18|website=W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312)|publisher=Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries}}</ref> ** Na Davidson Don Tengo Jabavu be supposed to attend however along plus chaw of ein fellow South African delegates no fi secof issues obtaining passports. * Tanzania: ** S. Rahinda * Trinidad and Tobago: ** Federated Workers Trade Union – George Padmore ** Labour Party – Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6" /> ** Negro Welfare and Cultural Association – C. Lynch ** Oilfields Workers' Trade Union – John F.F. Rojas<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-19|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Trade Union Congress – Rupert Gittens ** West Indian National Party – Claude Lushington * Uganda: ** The Young Baganda – I. Yatu Fraternal delegates, observers den oda attendees include:<ref name="Sherwood2" /> * Committee of Cyprus Affairs – L. Joannou * Common Wealth – Miss Leeds * Communist Party of Great Britain – Len Johnson, Wilf Charles, Pat Devine<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirsch |first1=Shirin |last2=Brown |first2=Geoff |date=January 2023 |title=Breaking the 'colour bar': Len Johnson, Manchester and anti-racism |journal=Race & Class |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=36–58 |doi=10.1177/03063968221139993 |issn=0306-3968 |s2cid=254910173 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * Federation of Indian Associations - Nagendranath Gangulee * Federation of Indian Organisations in Britain - Surat Alley * Independent Labour Party - John McNair * Lanka Sama Samaja Party – Tikiri Banda Subasinghe * National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] * Negro Welfare Association – Miss Levy, R.B. Rose, A.B. Blaine * Somali Society – Ismail Dorbeh * Women's International League – N. Burton Oda Attendees include: Raphael Armattoe,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nkrumah|first=Kwame|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeswAAAACAAJ|title=Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah|date=2002|publisher=Panaf|isbn=978-0-901787-60-6|language=en}}</ref> Kojo Botsio,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bowman|first=Jack A. W.|title='Mak': Ras T Makonnen, the unrecognized hero of the Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.racearchive.org.uk/mak-ras-t-makonnen-the-unrecognized-hero-of-the-pan-african-movement/|access-date=2023-05-16|website=Race Archive|language=en-GB}}</ref> Cecil Belfield Clarke<ref name="Sherwood2" /> den Dudley Thompson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress 1945 and 1995 Archive – Archives Hub|url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb3228-34|access-date=2023-06-02|website=archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk}}</ref> == 1974 Dar es Salaam Congress (Sixth) == Na dem host de sixth Pan-African Congress, dem sanso know as "Sixth-PAC anaa 6PAC", insyd Dar es Salaam, Tanzania insyd June 1974.<ref name=":3" /> Na dis be de first time na de event take place insyd Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Na de event originally be proposed by Pauulu Kamarakafego make e challenge neocolonialism den apartheid.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFLevyHillClaude2008|Levy, Hill & Claude 2008]], p. 40.</ref> === Reception === Na de ''Los Angeles Times'' report say na de Congress be very divided wey often be too "militant".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ofari|first=Earl|date=1974-07-26|title=Pan-African Congress Failed to Fulfill Promise of Earlier Session|pages=37|work=The Los Angeles Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times/124862155/|access-date=2023-05-17|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> === Attendees === * Anna J. Cooper<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey<ref name=":4" /> == 1994 Kampala Congress (Seventh) == Na dem hold de seventh Pan-African Congress insyd Kampala, Uganda from April 3 to April 8, 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-14 |title=A Brief History of the Pan African Movement |url=https://panafricancongress.org/a-brief-history-of-the-pan-african-movement/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Pan African Congress |language=en-US}}</ref> Na de theme of de event be "Facing the Future in Unity, Social Progress and Democracy."<ref name=":5">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFCampbell1996|Campbell 1996]], p. 1.</ref> === Planning === Na dem call de seventh Pan African Congress by de Pan-African Movement of [[Nigeria]] wey na dem hope to hold de event insyd Lagos.<ref name=":8">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 161.</ref> Na dis group, however, want to limit attendance to "African people" per, no be Arab anaa white Africans.<ref name=":8" /> === Event === Na der be more dan 2,000 participants at de event, wich na include a Women's Pre-Congress meeting.<ref name=":5" /> === Delegates === * Ronald Muwenda Mutabi, ''Kabaka'' of Buganda.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 164.</ref> == 2014 Johannesburg Congress (Eighth) == Na dem hold de eighth Pan-African Congress at de [[University of the Witwatersrand]] from January 14 to January 16, 2014, insyd Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8th Pan-African Congress Calls for Council on African National Affairs|url=https://www.ituc-africa.org/8TH-PAN-AFRICAN-CONGRESS-CALLS-FOR.html|access-date=2023-05-01|website=ITUC-AFRICA / CSI-AFRIQUE|language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> === Sources === * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbDrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22George+Padmore+Pan-African+Revolutionary%22 |title=George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary |publisher=Ian Randle Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=9789766373504|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5kDwAAQBAJ |title=Pan-Africanism: A History |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4742-5430-4|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last1=Adi |first1=Hakim |last2=Sherwood | first2=Marika | author2-link= | title=The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress |publisher=New Beacon Books |year=1995 |isbn=1873201125 |location=London |pages=}} * {{Cite journal |last=Baraka |first=Imamu Amira |date=October 1974 |title=Some Questions About the Sixth Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41065763 |journal=Black Politics |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=42–46 |jstor=41065763 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bogues |first=Anthony |date=December 2011 |title=C.L.R. James, Pan-Africanism and the Black Radical Tradition |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&AN=69870596&site=ehost-live |journal=Critical Arts: A South-North Journal of Cultural & Media Studies |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=484–499 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Horace |date=June 1996 |title=Rebuilding the Pan African Movement: A Report on the 7th Pan African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489739 |journal=African Journal of Political Science |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |jstor=23489739 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Claybrook |first=M. Keith |date=June 2018 |title=David L. Horne: Biographical Reflections, A Living Pan African Scholar-Activist |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=130868454&site=ehost-live |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1–15 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Contee |first=Clarence G. |date=January 1972 |title=Du Bois, the NAACP, and the Pan-African Congress of 1919 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717070 |journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.2307/2717070 |jstor=2717070 |s2cid=150226798 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Cox |first=Courtland |date=April 1974 |title=Sixth Pan African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41066329 |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=32–34 |doi=10.1080/00064246.1974.11431403 |jstor=41066329 |s2cid=147619284 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. 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E. B. Du Bois: A Biography|publisher=Holt Paperbacks|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8050-8805-2|location=New York}} * {{Cite journal |last=Logan |first=Rayford Whittingham |date=Summer 1965 |title=The Historical Aspects of Pan-Africanism: A Personal Chronicle |url=https://www.freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/Black%20Liberation%20Disk/Black%20Power!/SugahData/Essays/Logan.S.pdf |journal=African Forum |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=90–104 |via=Freedom Archive}} * {{Cite journal |last=Mboukou |first=Alexandre |date=March 1983 |title=The Pan African Movement, 1900–1945: A Study in Leadership Conflicts Among the Disciples of Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784289 |journal=Journal of Black Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=275–288 |doi=10.1177/002193478301300302 |jstor=2784289 |s2cid=144410438 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Moore |first=Laura |date=Winter 2018 |title='The Fighting Had Ceased But... Democracy Had Not Won': Helen Noble Curtis and the Rise of a Black International Feminism in World War I France |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711148 |journal=Journal of Women's History |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=109–133 |doi=10.1353/jowh.2018.0044 |s2cid=149526534 |url-access=subscription |via=Project MUSE}} * {{Cite journal |last=Nidi |first=Emanuele |date=Summer 2023 |title=Rien pour la révolution, tout par l'éducation": The Talented Tenth at the Second Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/3060797706 |journal=European Journal of American Studies |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.4000/ejas.2034 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |id=ProQuest 3060797706 |url-access=subscription |via=ProQuest}} * {{cite book|last=Painter|first=Nell Irvin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXxlnr9h_tcC&dq=%22Standing%20at%20Armageddon%3A%20A%20Grassroots%20History%20of%20the%20Progressive%20Era%22&pg=PP24|title=Standing at Armageddon: A Grassroots History of the Progressive Era|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=2008|isbn=978-0-393-33192-9|location=New York|page=}} * Pardy, H.G. (1966). ''[https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/9797/1/fulltext.pdf W.E.B. Du Bois and Pan-Africanism: His Place in its Early Development]'' (PDF) (Thesis thesis). McMaster University. * {{Cite journal |last=Ratcliff |first=Anthony J. |date=March 2013 |title=The Radical Evolution of Du Boisian Pan-Africanism |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=89862750&site=eds-live&scope=site |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=151–170 |url-access=registration |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Rathbone |first=Richard |date=October 1995 |title=Pan-Africanism: 50 Years On |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hft&AN=503355092&site=ehost-live |journal=History Today |volume=45 |pages=6–9 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Brian Russell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4pvFMqggIAC&pg=PR4|title=Artistic Ambassadors: Literary and International Representation of the New Negro Era|publisher=University of Virginia Press|year=2013|isbn=9780813933696}} * {{Cite journal |last=Said |first=Abdulkadir N. |date=June 1974 |title=The Sixth Pan African Congress: Black Unity: Coming of Age in Dar-es-Salaam |url=https://dh.howard.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=newdirections |journal=New Directions |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=1–6}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Worley |first1=H.F. |last2=Contee |first2=C.G. |date=April 1970 |title=The Worley Report on the Pan-African Congress of 1919 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716447 |journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=140–143 |doi=10.2307/2716447 |jstor=2716447 |s2cid=149559631 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Young |first=Kurt B. |date=June 2011 |title=Towards an 8th Pan-African Congress: The Evolution of the Race-Class Debate |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13569317.2011.575682 |journal=Journal of Political Ideologies |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=145–167 |doi=10.1080/13569317.2011.575682 |s2cid=145750311 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} == External links == {{commons}} * [https://www.jpanafrican.org/docs/vol8no4/8.4-8-1921Pan.pdf 1921 Pan-African Congress, London Manifesto]. From the ''Journal of Pan African Studies''. * [https://snccdigital.org/our-voices/internationalism/part-4/ SNCC Digital Gateway: Organizing 6PAC]. Digital documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and grassroots organizing from the inside-out * B. F. Bankie, [http://www.ghanansem.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=107&Itemid=146 "The 'Key Link' – some London notes towards the 7th Pan-African Congress"], ''Ghana Nsem'', 2001. [[Category:International conferences]] [[Category:Anti-racist organizations insyd Africa]] [[Category:Pan-African organizations]] [[Category:Pan-Africanism]] s6nlkwunjmagtlxgc3ar2qbdg9ekdcr 63575 63569 2025-06-16T18:40:16Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 63575 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Pan-African Congress''' (PAC) be a regular series of meetings wich na first take place on de back of de Pan-African Conference dem hold insyd London in 1900. De Pan-African Congress first gain a reputation as a peacemaker for decolonization insyd Africa den insyd de West Indies, wey e make a significant advance for de [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-African]] cause. Insyd de beginning, na one of de group ein major demands be make dem end colonial rule den racial discrimination. Na e stand against imperialism wey na e demand human rights den equality of economic opportunity. De manifesto wey de Pan-African Congress give include de political den economic demands of de Congress for a new world context of international cooperation den de need make dem address de issues wey dey face Africa as a result of European colonization of chaw of de continent. Na congresses take place insyd 1919 insyd Paris; 1921 insyd Brussels, London den Paris; 1923 insyd Lisbon den London; 1927 insyd New York City; 1945 insyd Manchester; 1974 insyd Dar es Salaam; 1994 insyd Kampala; den 2014 insyd Johannesburg. == Background == [[File:W.E.B._Du_Bois_to_NAACP_January_1919_about_First_Pan_African_Congress.jpg|thumb|Letter from W.E.B. Du Bois to de NAACP January 1919 about planning de First Pan African Congress.]] Na dem create [[Pan-Africanism|Pan Africanism]] as a philosophy as early as de late 1700s, dem see thru de movements of abolition insyd both de United States den Britain.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 187.</ref> Na British writers den former slaves, [[Ottobah Cugoano]] den [[Olaudah Equiano]] create de foundations for Pan Africanism insyd English literature.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 188.</ref> Na French speakers, like [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], create de idea of [[Négritude]].<ref name=":0">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFGeiss1969|Geiss 1969]], p. 189.</ref> Na dese ideas refute de inferiority of Black people.<ref name=":0" /> Na Pan Africanists believe dat na dem build both slavery den colonialism on negative attitudes towards people of African descent, wich in turn, contribute to racism.<ref name="Adejumobi2">{{Cite web|last=Adejumobi|first=Saheed|date=2008-07-30|title=The Pan-African Congresses, 1900–1945|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/pan-african-congresses-1900-1945/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=Black Past|language=en-US}}</ref> Na African Americans especially be frustrated plus dema slow progress towards racial equality insyd de [[United States]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> == 1919 Paris Congress (First) == === Delegates === Among de delegates be:<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHarrison,_Jr.1921|Harrison, Jr. 1921]], p. 84.</ref> * Alfredo Andrade, Portugal.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 141.</ref> * John Archer, Britain.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web|last=Reft|first=Ryan|date=2019-02-19|title=African-American History Month: First Pan-African Congress|url=https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2019/02/african-american-history-month-first-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=The Library of Congress}}</ref> * Matthew Virgil Boutte, United States.<ref name=":2">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDu_Bois1919|Du Bois 1919]].</ref> * Eliezer Cadet, Haiti * Gratien Candace.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 136.</ref> * Louise Chapoteau, France.<ref name=":2" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Helen Noble Curtis, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 114.</ref> * Blaise Diagne, [[Senegal]], den French Commissioner General of de Ministry of Colonies.<ref name=":3" /> * [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], NAACP delegate.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 135.</ref> * Henry Franklin-Bouillon, France.<ref name=":1" /> * M. Edmund Fitzgerald Fredericks, Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) delegate.<ref name=":1" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Tertullien Guilbaud, Minister of Haiti insyd France.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 119.</ref> * John Hope, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Ida Gibbs Hunt, United States.<ref name=":3" /> * Addie Hunton, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 7-8.</ref> * George Jackson, United States den Congo.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * William Jernagin, United States. * Charles D. B. King, [[Liberia]].<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFDunstan2016|Dunstan 2016]], p. 143.</ref> * Joseph Lagrosillière, Gaudeloupe.<ref name=":1" /> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Robert Russa Moton, United States. * Sol Plaatje, [[South Africa]]. (Possibly.)<ref>Geiss, ''The Pan-African Movement'', p.238.</ref> * Achille René-Boisneuf, Martinique.<ref name=":1" /> * Charles Edward Russell, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Benjamin F. Seldon, United States.<ref name=":2" /> * Roscoe Conklin Simmons, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Joel Elias Spingarn, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Cyrille Van Overbergh, Belgian Peace Commission.<ref>{{cite journal |author=W. E. B. Dubois |date=April 1919 |title=The Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/civil-rights/crisis/0400-crisis-v17n06-w102.pdf |journal=The Crisis |volume=17 |issue=6}}</ref> * William English Walling, United States.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Richard R. Wright == 1921 Brussels, London den Paris Congress (Second) == === Delegates === * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Addie E. Dillard.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], p. 8.</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * George Rubin Hutto, United States.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFNidi2023|Nidi 2023]], pp. 7–8.</ref> * Rayford Logan, United States.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Reed |first=David |date=2014 |title=Rayford W. Logan: The Evolution of a Pan-African Protege, 1921–1927 |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A367197623/AONE?u=txshrpub100124&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=ee293e77 |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=31 |url-access=subscription |via=Gale Academic OneFile}}</ref> * Albert Marryshow, Grenada.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFBogues2011|Bogues 2011]], p. 488.</ref> == 1923 Lisbon den London Congress (Third)== Insyd 1923, na dem hold de Third Pan-African Congress insyd London den insyd Lisbon. Na Helen Noble Curtis be an important planner of de Lisbon event, wich na e be smaller dan de odas.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMoore2018|Moore 2018]], p. 125.</ref> Na dem hold de London Congress at Denison House.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFHodder2021|Hodder 2021]], p. 121.</ref> Na dis meeting sanso repeat de demands such as self-rule, de problems insyd de Diaspora den de African-European relationship.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFMboukou1983|Mboukou 1983]], p. 276.</ref> == 1927 New York City Congress (Fourth) == === Event === Na dem hold de opening meeting at St. Mark's Methodist Church den de Headquarters remain at de Grace Congregational Church.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-22|title=Negro Experts Attend Pan-African Congress Opening in New York|pages=3|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135167/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na der be about 208 delegates wey komot de United States den oda countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na low attendance from British den French colonies be secof government travel restrictions.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na William Pickens give a speech on de importance of worker solidarity during de opening session.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=For the Unity of Labor|pages=4|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125134913/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1927-08-23|title=Pickens Addresses Pan-African Congress|pages=6|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker-pickens-addresses-1927/121492715/|access-date=2023-05-23|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na oda speakers at de opening session include Chief Nana Amoah, Reginald G. Barrow, Dantès Bellegarde, James Francis Jenkins, H. K. Rakhit, Adolph Sixto, den T. Augustus Toote.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|date=1927-08-27|title=Representative Delegation at Pan-African Meet|pages=3|work=The New York Age|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-new-york-age/88260140/|access-date=2023-05-22|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na later speeches be given by W. Tete Ansa, Helen Noble Curtis, Du Bois, Leo William Hansbury, Leslie Pinckney Hill, Georges Sylvain, den Charles H. Wesley.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite web|date=2022-06-01|title=DOCUMENT: Resolutions Passed by the Fourth Pan-African Congress, New York City, 1927|url=http://blackagendareport.com/document-resolutions-passed-fourth-pan-african-congress-new-york-city-1927|access-date=2023-05-23|website=Black Agenda Report|language=en}}</ref> De final speeches of de congress be given by H. H. Philips, Rayford Logan, den Y. Hikada on politics insyd Africa.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress Wants U.S. Navy to Leave Haiti|pages=1|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135529/|access-date=22 May 2023}} and {{Cite news|date=25 August 1927|title=Negro Congress to Ask U.S. Leave Haiti|pages=2|work=The Daily Worker|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-worker/125135834/|access-date=22 May 2023|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Na dem form committees during de event, wey dey include de creation of a resolution committee wey be headed by Bellegarde, Cannady, Du Bois, Hunton, den Reverdy C. Ransom.<ref name=":13" /> === Delegates === Na der be 208 delegates wey komot de United States den 10 different foreign countries.<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> Na Africa be represented by delegates wey komot de [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Nigeria]], den [[Sierra Leone]].<ref name="Adejumobi2" /> * Dantès Bellegarde, Haiti.<ref name=":7" /> * Anna J. Cooper.<ref name=":42" /> * Amy Jacques Garvey.<ref name=":42" /> * Rayford Logan.<ref name=":22" /> * Richard B. Moore, American Negro Labor Congress.<ref name=":13" /> == 1945 Manchester Congress (Fifth) == === Attendees === Delegates Fifth Pan-African Congress dey include:<ref name="Sherwood2">{{Cite book|last=Sherwood|first=Marika|title=Manchester and the 1945 Pan-African Congress|publisher=Savannah Press|year=1995|isbn=0951972022|location=London}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite web|last=Høgsbjerg|first=Christian|date=12 April 2016|title=Remembering the Fifth Pan-African Congress|url=https://lucas.leeds.ac.uk/article/remembering-the-fifth-pan-african-congress-christian-hogsbjerg/|publisher=Leeds University Centre for African Studies (LUCAS)}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite web|date=14 October 2005|title=It began in Manchester — Manchester and The Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2005/10/14/151005_pan_african_congress_feature.shtml|publisher=BBC News; Black History Month}}</ref> * Antigua: ** Workers' Union – R.G. Small, W.R. Austin * Bahamas: ** R. Johnson, J. McCaskie, R.D. Watson, J.M. King * Barbados: ** Progressive League – E. de L. Yearwood ** Workers' Union – A. Mosley * Belize: ** Workers' League – H.T. Weir, M. Dawson, Gilbert Cargill, Horace Dawson * Bermuda: ** Workers' Association: G.R. Tucker, E. Richards * Gambia: ** Gambia Labour Union – I.M. Garba-Jahumpa ** National Council of Gambia – J. Downes-Thomas * Ghana: ** Aborigines' Rights Protection Society – Ashie Nikoi ** Friends of African Freedom Society – Bankole Awoonor Renner, Mrs Renner ** Gold Coast Farmers' Association – Ashie Nikoi, W.J. Kwesi Mould ** Railway Workers' Union – J.S. Annan<ref>{{Cite web|last=Annan|first=Citizen|date=2014-03-23|title=100 years of Nana Dr JS Annan, a life of service and social responsibility|url=https://citizenannan.wordpress.com/2014/03/23/100-years-of-nana-dr-js-annan-a-life-of-service-and-social-responsibility/|access-date=2023-05-17|website=Citizen Annan|language=en}}</ref> * Great Britain: ** African Progressive Association, London – Koi Larbi ** African Students' Union of Edinburgh – J.C deGraft Johnson ** Association of African Descent, Dublin – Jaja Wachuku ** Coloured Worker' Association – Ernest P. Marke, E.A. Aki-Emi, James Nortey ** International African Service Bureau – Peter Abrahams, Amy Ashwood Garvey, [[Kwame Nkrumah]], [[Haile Selassie|Ras T. Makonnen]], [[George Padmore]] ** League of African Peoples, Birmingham – Dr. Clarence J. Piliso ** The Negro Association, Manchester – C. Peart, M.I. Faro, Frank Niles, Dr. P. Milliard, F.W. Blaine ** The Negro Welfare Centre, Liverpool – E. E. Kwesi Kurankyi-Taylor, James Eggay Taylor,<ref>{{Cite web|last=James|first=Finding|title=Finding James|url=https://findingjames.net/|access-date=2023-05-18|website=Finding James|language=en-US}}</ref> Edwin J. DuPlan,<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2003|title=E J Du Plau, a welfare worker from Liverpool attends the Fifth...|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/du-plau-a-welfare-worker-from-liverpool-attends-the-fifth-news-photo/2666035|access-date=2023-05-24|website=Getty Images|language=en-gb}}</ref> C.D. Hyde, E. Asuquo Cowan ** The Young African Progressive League – Adeniran Ogunsanya, E. Brown, George Nelson, Raz Finni ** United Committee of Coloured and Colonial People Association, Cardiff – Aaron Albert Mossell, J.S. Andrew, Jim Nurse, H. Hassan, Basil Roderick ** West African Students' Union, London – Joe Appiah, F.O.B. Blaize, S. Ako Adjei, F.R. Kankam-Boadu * Grenada: ** Labour Party – S.J. Andrews * Guyana: ** African Development Association – W. Meighan, Dr. Peter Milliard ** Trades Union Council – D.M. Harper * Kenya: ** Kikuyu Central Association – [[Jomo Kenyatta]]. * Jamaica: ** People's National Party – L.A. Thoywell-Henry ** Trade Union Congress – Ken Hill<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-18|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League – Alma La Badie, L.A. Thoywell-Henry, V.G. Hamilton, K. Boxer * Liberia: ** Progressive Society – J. Tobie, Robert Broadhurst * Malawi: ** Nyasaland African Congress – Dr. Hastings Banda * Nigeria: ** Calabar Improvement League – Eyo B. Ndem ** National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons – Magnus Williams, F.B. Joseph ** Nigerian Youth Movement – [[Obafemi Awolowo]], H.O. Davies ** Trade Union Congress – A. Soyemi Coker * Saint Kitts and Nevis: ** St. Kitts Workers' League – R. Johnson ** St. Kitts and Nevis Trades and Labour Union – J.A. Linton, Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Bonita |date=1996 |title=Caribbean Women & Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489741 |journal=African Journal of Political Science / Revue Africaine de Science Politique |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=21–33 |issn=1027-0353 |jstor=23489741}}</ref> * Saint Lucia: ** Seamen's and Waterfront Workers' Union – J.M. King * Sierra Leone: ** Teachers' Union – Harry Sawyerr ** The People's Forum – Lamina Sankoh ** Trade Union Congress – I.T.A. Wallace Johnson ** West African Youth League – I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson * South Africa: ** African National Congress – Peter Abrahams, Makumalo (Mako) Hlubi<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 1945|title=Africa Speaks|url=https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b109-i072|access-date=2023-05-18|website=W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312)|publisher=Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries}}</ref> ** Na Davidson Don Tengo Jabavu be supposed to attend however along plus chaw of ein fellow South African delegates no fi secof issues obtaining passports. * Tanzania: ** S. Rahinda * Trinidad and Tobago: ** Federated Workers Trade Union – George Padmore ** Labour Party – Ernest McKenzie-Mavinga<ref name=":6" /> ** Negro Welfare and Cultural Association – C. Lynch ** Oilfields Workers' Trade Union – John F.F. Rojas<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress press release 11, ca. October 1945|url=http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b107-i449|access-date=2023-05-19|website=credo.library.umass.edu|language=en}}</ref> ** Trade Union Congress – Rupert Gittens ** West Indian National Party – Claude Lushington * Uganda: ** The Young Baganda – I. Yatu Fraternal delegates, observers den oda attendees include:<ref name="Sherwood2" /> * Committee of Cyprus Affairs – L. Joannou * Common Wealth – Miss Leeds * Communist Party of Great Britain – Len Johnson, Wilf Charles, Pat Devine<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirsch |first1=Shirin |last2=Brown |first2=Geoff |date=January 2023 |title=Breaking the 'colour bar': Len Johnson, Manchester and anti-racism |journal=Race & Class |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=36–58 |doi=10.1177/03063968221139993 |issn=0306-3968 |s2cid=254910173 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * Federation of Indian Associations - Nagendranath Gangulee * Federation of Indian Organisations in Britain - Surat Alley * Independent Labour Party - John McNair * Lanka Sama Samaja Party – Tikiri Banda Subasinghe * National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] * Negro Welfare Association – Miss Levy, R.B. Rose, A.B. Blaine * Somali Society – Ismail Dorbeh * Women's International League – N. Burton Oda Attendees include: Raphael Armattoe,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nkrumah|first=Kwame|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeswAAAACAAJ|title=Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah|date=2002|publisher=Panaf|isbn=978-0-901787-60-6|language=en}}</ref> Kojo Botsio,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bowman|first=Jack A. W.|title='Mak': Ras T Makonnen, the unrecognized hero of the Pan-African Movement|url=https://www.racearchive.org.uk/mak-ras-t-makonnen-the-unrecognized-hero-of-the-pan-african-movement/|access-date=2023-05-16|website=Race Archive|language=en-GB}}</ref> Cecil Belfield Clarke<ref name="Sherwood2" /> den Dudley Thompson.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pan-African Congress 1945 and 1995 Archive – Archives Hub|url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb3228-34|access-date=2023-06-02|website=archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk}}</ref> == 1974 Dar es Salaam Congress (Sixth) == Na dem host de sixth Pan-African Congress, dem sanso know as "Sixth-PAC anaa 6PAC", insyd Dar es Salaam, Tanzania insyd June 1974.<ref name=":3" /> Na dis be de first time na de event take place insyd Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Na de event originally be proposed by Pauulu Kamarakafego make e challenge neocolonialism den apartheid.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFLevyHillClaude2008|Levy, Hill & Claude 2008]], p. 40.</ref> === Reception === Na de ''Los Angeles Times'' report say na de Congress be very divided wey often be too "militant".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ofari|first=Earl|date=1974-07-26|title=Pan-African Congress Failed to Fulfill Promise of Earlier Session|pages=37|work=The Los Angeles Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times/124862155/|access-date=2023-05-17|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> === Attendees === * Anna J. Cooper<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Farmer|first=Ashley|date=2016-07-03|title=Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: the Sixth Pan-African Congress|url=https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/|access-date=2023-05-10|website=AAIHS|language=en-US}}</ref> * Amy Jacques Garvey<ref name=":4" /> == 1994 Kampala Congress (Seventh) == Na dem hold de seventh Pan-African Congress insyd Kampala, Uganda from April 3 to April 8, 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-14 |title=A Brief History of the Pan African Movement |url=https://panafricancongress.org/a-brief-history-of-the-pan-african-movement/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Pan African Congress |language=en-US}}</ref> Na de theme of de event be "Facing the Future in Unity, Social Progress and Democracy."<ref name=":5">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFCampbell1996|Campbell 1996]], p. 1.</ref> === Planning === Na dem call de seventh Pan African Congress by de Pan-African Movement of [[Nigeria]] wey na dem hope to hold de event insyd Lagos.<ref name=":8">[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 161.</ref> Na dis group, however, want to limit attendance to "African people" per, no be Arab anaa white Africans.<ref name=":8" /> === Event === Na der be more dan 2,000 participants at de event, wich na include a Women's Pre-Congress meeting.<ref name=":5" /> === Delegates === * Ronald Muwenda Mutabi, ''Kabaka'' of Buganda.<ref>[[:en:Pan-African_Congress#CITEREFYoung2011|Young 2011]], p. 164.</ref> == 2014 Johannesburg Congress (Eighth) == Na dem hold de eighth Pan-African Congress at de [[University of the Witwatersrand]] from January 14 to January 16, 2014, insyd Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8th Pan-African Congress Calls for Council on African National Affairs|url=https://www.ituc-africa.org/8TH-PAN-AFRICAN-CONGRESS-CALLS-FOR.html|access-date=2023-05-01|website=ITUC-AFRICA / CSI-AFRIQUE|language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> === Sources === * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbDrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22George+Padmore+Pan-African+Revolutionary%22 |title=George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary |publisher=Ian Randle Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=9789766373504|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last=Adi |first=Hakim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5kDwAAQBAJ |title=Pan-Africanism: A History |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4742-5430-4|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last1=Adi |first1=Hakim |last2=Sherwood | first2=Marika | author2-link= | title=The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress |publisher=New Beacon Books |year=1995 |isbn=1873201125 |location=London |pages=}} * {{Cite journal |last=Baraka |first=Imamu Amira |date=October 1974 |title=Some Questions About the Sixth Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41065763 |journal=Black Politics |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=42–46 |jstor=41065763 |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bogues |first=Anthony |date=December 2011 |title=C.L.R. 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E. B. Du Bois: A Biography|publisher=Holt Paperbacks|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8050-8805-2|location=New York}} * {{Cite journal |last=Logan |first=Rayford Whittingham |date=Summer 1965 |title=The Historical Aspects of Pan-Africanism: A Personal Chronicle |url=https://www.freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/Black%20Liberation%20Disk/Black%20Power!/SugahData/Essays/Logan.S.pdf |journal=African Forum |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=90–104 |via=Freedom Archive}} * {{Cite journal |last=Mboukou |first=Alexandre |date=March 1983 |title=The Pan African Movement, 1900–1945: A Study in Leadership Conflicts Among the Disciples of Pan Africanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784289 |journal=Journal of Black Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=275–288 |doi=10.1177/002193478301300302 |jstor=2784289 |s2cid=144410438 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Moore |first=Laura |date=Winter 2018 |title='The Fighting Had Ceased But... Democracy Had Not Won': Helen Noble Curtis and the Rise of a Black International Feminism in World War I France |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711148 |journal=Journal of Women's History |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=109–133 |doi=10.1353/jowh.2018.0044 |s2cid=149526534 |url-access=subscription |via=Project MUSE}} * {{Cite journal |last=Nidi |first=Emanuele |date=Summer 2023 |title=Rien pour la révolution, tout par l'éducation": The Talented Tenth at the Second Pan-African Congress |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/3060797706 |journal=European Journal of American Studies |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.4000/ejas.2034 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |id=ProQuest 3060797706 |url-access=subscription |via=ProQuest}} * {{cite book|last=Painter|first=Nell Irvin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXxlnr9h_tcC&dq=%22Standing%20at%20Armageddon%3A%20A%20Grassroots%20History%20of%20the%20Progressive%20Era%22&pg=PP24|title=Standing at Armageddon: A Grassroots History of the Progressive Era|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=2008|isbn=978-0-393-33192-9|location=New York|page=}} * Pardy, H.G. (1966). ''[https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/9797/1/fulltext.pdf W.E.B. Du Bois and Pan-Africanism: His Place in its Early Development]'' (PDF) (Thesis thesis). McMaster University. * {{Cite journal |last=Ratcliff |first=Anthony J. |date=March 2013 |title=The Radical Evolution of Du Boisian Pan-Africanism |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=89862750&site=eds-live&scope=site |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=151–170 |url-access=registration |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite journal |last=Rathbone |first=Richard |date=October 1995 |title=Pan-Africanism: 50 Years On |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hft&AN=503355092&site=ehost-live |journal=History Today |volume=45 |pages=6–9 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} * {{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Brian Russell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4pvFMqggIAC&pg=PR4|title=Artistic Ambassadors: Literary and International Representation of the New Negro Era|publisher=University of Virginia Press|year=2013|isbn=9780813933696}} * {{Cite journal |last=Said |first=Abdulkadir N. |date=June 1974 |title=The Sixth Pan African Congress: Black Unity: Coming of Age in Dar-es-Salaam |url=https://dh.howard.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=newdirections |journal=New Directions |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=1–6}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Worley |first1=H.F. |last2=Contee |first2=C.G. |date=April 1970 |title=The Worley Report on the Pan-African Congress of 1919 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716447 |journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=140–143 |doi=10.2307/2716447 |jstor=2716447 |s2cid=149559631 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Young |first=Kurt B. |date=June 2011 |title=Towards an 8th Pan-African Congress: The Evolution of the Race-Class Debate |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13569317.2011.575682 |journal=Journal of Political Ideologies |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=145–167 |doi=10.1080/13569317.2011.575682 |s2cid=145750311 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}} == External links == {{commons}} * [https://www.jpanafrican.org/docs/vol8no4/8.4-8-1921Pan.pdf 1921 Pan-African Congress, London Manifesto]. From the ''Journal of Pan African Studies''. * [https://snccdigital.org/our-voices/internationalism/part-4/ SNCC Digital Gateway: Organizing 6PAC]. Digital documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and grassroots organizing from the inside-out * B. F. Bankie, [https://web.archive.org/web/20171207023235/http://www.ghanansem.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=107&Itemid=146 "The 'Key Link' – some London notes towards the 7th Pan-African Congress"], ''Ghana Nsem'', 2001. [[Category:International conferences]] [[Category:Anti-racist organizations insyd Africa]] [[Category:Pan-African organizations]] [[Category:Pan-Africanism]] a8z73col9sizhx1678r2ip9bq3y0stc 0 17138 63620 62706 2025-06-16T21:20:34Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 63620 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''''Act Against Slavery''''' be an anti-slavery law dem pass on July 9, 1793, insyd de second legislative session of Upper Canada, de colonial division of British North America wey go eventually cam be Ontario.{{Sfn|Historica-Dominion Institute|nda}} Na e ban de importation of slaves wey na e mandate dat kiddies dem born henceforth to female slaves go be freed upon reaching de age of 25. == References == mlmf78yecshu8di31sl00mk02ew2twg 63621 63620 2025-06-16T21:31:09Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63621 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''''Act Against Slavery''''' be an anti-slavery law dem pass on July 9, 1793, insyd de second legislative session of Upper Canada, de colonial division of British North America wey go eventually cam be Ontario.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutenda|Historica-Dominion Institute nda]].</ref> Na e ban de importation of slaves wey na e mandate dat kiddies dem born henceforth to female slaves go be freed upon reaching de age of 25. == Synopsis == Na John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant Governor of de colony, be a supporter of abolition before na he cam to Upper Canada; as a British Member of Parliament, na he describe slavery as an offence against Christianity.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011a|Archives of Ontario 2011a]].</ref><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFBode1993|Bode 1993]].</ref> By 1792 na de slave population insyd Upper Canada no be large. However, wen na dem compare plus de number of free settlers, na de number no be insignificant. Insyd York (de present-day city of Toronto) na der be 15 African-Canadians wey dey live, while insyd Quebec na dem fi find sam 1,000 slaves. Furthermore, by de time na de Act Against Slavery go be ratified, na de number of slaves wey dey reside insyd Upper Canada significantly increased by de arrival of Loyalist refugees from de south wey na dem bring servants den slaves. == References == 3wha4lad5wzf3l60ebojea2ag7wgvlr 63622 63621 2025-06-16T21:40:20Z DaSupremo 9 /* Synopsis */ Improve article 63622 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''''Act Against Slavery''''' be an anti-slavery law dem pass on July 9, 1793, insyd de second legislative session of Upper Canada, de colonial division of British North America wey go eventually cam be Ontario.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutenda|Historica-Dominion Institute nda]].</ref> Na e ban de importation of slaves wey na e mandate dat kiddies dem born henceforth to female slaves go be freed upon reaching de age of 25. == Synopsis == Na John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant Governor of de colony, be a supporter of abolition before na he cam to Upper Canada; as a British Member of Parliament, na he describe slavery as an offence against Christianity.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011a|Archives of Ontario 2011a]].</ref><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFBode1993|Bode 1993]].</ref> By 1792 na de slave population insyd Upper Canada no be large. However, wen na dem compare plus de number of free settlers, na de number no be insignificant. Insyd York (de present-day city of Toronto) na der be 15 African-Canadians wey dey live, while insyd Quebec na dem fi find sam 1,000 slaves. Furthermore, by de time na de Act Against Slavery go be ratified, na de number of slaves wey dey reside insyd Upper Canada significantly increased by de arrival of Loyalist refugees from de south wey na dem bring servants den slaves.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFWilsonnd|Wilson nd]].</ref> At de inaugural meeting of de Executive Council of Upper Canada insyd March 1793, na Simcoe hear from a witness de story of Chloe Cooley, a female slave wey na she be violently removed from Canada for sale insyd de [[United States]]. Na Simcoe ein desire make he abolish slavery insyd Upper Canada be resisted by members of de Legislative Assembly wey na dem own slaves, den therefore na de resulting act be a compromise.<ref name=":0" /> De bulk of de text be due to John White, de Attorney General of de day. Of de 16 members of de assembly, at least na six own slaves.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFTaylor2010|Taylor 2010]].</ref> == References == juxshpom98nlzkpkufr7ba8yqk9boe1 63623 63622 2025-06-16T21:53:05Z DaSupremo 9 /* Synopsis */ Improve article 63623 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''''Act Against Slavery''''' be an anti-slavery law dem pass on July 9, 1793, insyd de second legislative session of Upper Canada, de colonial division of British North America wey go eventually cam be Ontario.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutenda|Historica-Dominion Institute nda]].</ref> Na e ban de importation of slaves wey na e mandate dat kiddies dem born henceforth to female slaves go be freed upon reaching de age of 25. == Synopsis == Na John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant Governor of de colony, be a supporter of abolition before na he cam to Upper Canada; as a British Member of Parliament, na he describe slavery as an offence against Christianity.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011a|Archives of Ontario 2011a]].</ref><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFBode1993|Bode 1993]].</ref> By 1792 na de slave population insyd Upper Canada no be large. However, wen na dem compare plus de number of free settlers, na de number no be insignificant. Insyd York (de present-day city of Toronto) na der be 15 African-Canadians wey dey live, while insyd Quebec na dem fi find sam 1,000 slaves. Furthermore, by de time na de Act Against Slavery go be ratified, na de number of slaves wey dey reside insyd Upper Canada significantly increased by de arrival of Loyalist refugees from de south wey na dem bring servants den slaves.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFWilsonnd|Wilson nd]].</ref> At de inaugural meeting of de Executive Council of Upper Canada insyd March 1793, na Simcoe hear from a witness de story of Chloe Cooley, a female slave wey na she be violently removed from Canada for sale insyd de [[United States]]. Na Simcoe ein desire make he abolish slavery insyd Upper Canada be resisted by members of de Legislative Assembly wey na dem own slaves, den therefore na de resulting act be a compromise.<ref name=":0" /> De bulk of de text be due to John White, de Attorney General of de day. Of de 16 members of de assembly, at least na six own slaves.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFTaylor2010|Taylor 2010]].</ref> De law, dem title ''An Act to Prevent the further Introduction of Slaves and to limit the Term of Contracts for Servitude within this Province'', state dat while all slaves insyd de province go remain dem enslave til death, no new slaves go be brought into Upper Canada, den kiddies dem born to female slaves after passage of de act go be freed at de age of 25.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFCBC_Newsnd|CBC News nd]].</ref> Na dis law make Upper Canada "de first jurisdiction insyd de British Empire to pass a law freeing slaves".<ref name=":1" /><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFJean2007|Jean 2007]].</ref> De act remain in force til de British Parliament ein [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]] dem abolish slavery insyd chaw parts of de British Empire. == References == 78x79katkr468a0f16tzf59ds5y2ibt 63624 63623 2025-06-16T22:04:50Z DaSupremo 9 /* Aftermath */ Improve article 63624 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''''Act Against Slavery''''' be an anti-slavery law dem pass on July 9, 1793, insyd de second legislative session of Upper Canada, de colonial division of British North America wey go eventually cam be Ontario.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutenda|Historica-Dominion Institute nda]].</ref> Na e ban de importation of slaves wey na e mandate dat kiddies dem born henceforth to female slaves go be freed upon reaching de age of 25. == Synopsis == Na John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant Governor of de colony, be a supporter of abolition before na he cam to Upper Canada; as a British Member of Parliament, na he describe slavery as an offence against Christianity.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011a|Archives of Ontario 2011a]].</ref><ref name=":2">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFBode1993|Bode 1993]].</ref> By 1792 na de slave population insyd Upper Canada no be large. However, wen na dem compare plus de number of free settlers, na de number no be insignificant. Insyd York (de present-day city of Toronto) na der be 15 African-Canadians wey dey live, while insyd Quebec na dem fi find sam 1,000 slaves. Furthermore, by de time na de Act Against Slavery go be ratified, na de number of slaves wey dey reside insyd Upper Canada significantly increased by de arrival of Loyalist refugees from de south wey na dem bring servants den slaves.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFWilsonnd|Wilson nd]].</ref> At de inaugural meeting of de Executive Council of Upper Canada insyd March 1793, na Simcoe hear from a witness de story of Chloe Cooley, a female slave wey na she be violently removed from Canada for sale insyd de [[United States]]. Na Simcoe ein desire make he abolish slavery insyd Upper Canada be resisted by members of de Legislative Assembly wey na dem own slaves, den therefore na de resulting act be a compromise.<ref name=":0" /> De bulk of de text be due to John White, de Attorney General of de day. Of de 16 members of de assembly, at least na six own slaves.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFTaylor2010|Taylor 2010]].</ref> De law, dem title ''An Act to Prevent the further Introduction of Slaves and to limit the Term of Contracts for Servitude within this Province'', state dat while all slaves insyd de province go remain dem enslave til death, no new slaves go be brought into Upper Canada, den kiddies dem born to female slaves after passage of de act go be freed at de age of 25.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFCBC_Newsnd|CBC News nd]].</ref> Na dis law make Upper Canada "de first jurisdiction insyd de British Empire to pass a law freeing slaves".<ref name=":1" /><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFJean2007|Jean 2007]].</ref> De act remain in force til de British Parliament ein [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]] dem abolish slavery insyd chaw parts of de British Empire. ==Aftermath== Insyd 1798, na Christopher Robinson introduce a bill insyd de Legislative Assembly make e allow de importation of additional slaves. Na dem pass de bill by de Assembly, buh na e be stalled by de Legislative Council wey na e die at de end of de session.<ref name=":2" /> Na thousands of Black Canadians volunteer make dem serve insyd de War of 1812. Insyd 1819, na Attorney General John Robinson (son of Christopher) declare dat by residing insyd Canada, na dem set black residents free, den dat Canadian courts go protect dema freedom.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011|Archives of Ontario 2011]].</ref><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutend|Historica-Dominion Institute nd]].</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == k1mjm9e7ar0bbmqk229fcg4mzwyxzop 63625 63624 2025-06-16T22:10:55Z DaSupremo 9 /* Read further */ Improve article 63625 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''''Act Against Slavery''''' be an anti-slavery law dem pass on July 9, 1793, insyd de second legislative session of Upper Canada, de colonial division of British North America wey go eventually cam be Ontario.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutenda|Historica-Dominion Institute nda]].</ref> Na e ban de importation of slaves wey na e mandate dat kiddies dem born henceforth to female slaves go be freed upon reaching de age of 25. == Synopsis == Na John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant Governor of de colony, be a supporter of abolition before na he cam to Upper Canada; as a British Member of Parliament, na he describe slavery as an offence against Christianity.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011a|Archives of Ontario 2011a]].</ref><ref name=":2">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFBode1993|Bode 1993]].</ref> By 1792 na de slave population insyd Upper Canada no be large. However, wen na dem compare plus de number of free settlers, na de number no be insignificant. Insyd York (de present-day city of Toronto) na der be 15 African-Canadians wey dey live, while insyd Quebec na dem fi find sam 1,000 slaves. Furthermore, by de time na de Act Against Slavery go be ratified, na de number of slaves wey dey reside insyd Upper Canada significantly increased by de arrival of Loyalist refugees from de south wey na dem bring servants den slaves.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFWilsonnd|Wilson nd]].</ref> At de inaugural meeting of de Executive Council of Upper Canada insyd March 1793, na Simcoe hear from a witness de story of Chloe Cooley, a female slave wey na she be violently removed from Canada for sale insyd de [[United States]]. Na Simcoe ein desire make he abolish slavery insyd Upper Canada be resisted by members of de Legislative Assembly wey na dem own slaves, den therefore na de resulting act be a compromise.<ref name=":0" /> De bulk of de text be due to John White, de Attorney General of de day. Of de 16 members of de assembly, at least na six own slaves.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFTaylor2010|Taylor 2010]].</ref> De law, dem title ''An Act to Prevent the further Introduction of Slaves and to limit the Term of Contracts for Servitude within this Province'', state dat while all slaves insyd de province go remain dem enslave til death, no new slaves go be brought into Upper Canada, den kiddies dem born to female slaves after passage of de act go be freed at de age of 25.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFCBC_Newsnd|CBC News nd]].</ref> Na dis law make Upper Canada "de first jurisdiction insyd de British Empire to pass a law freeing slaves".<ref name=":1" /><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFJean2007|Jean 2007]].</ref> De act remain in force til de British Parliament ein [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]] dem abolish slavery insyd chaw parts of de British Empire. ==Aftermath== Insyd 1798, na Christopher Robinson introduce a bill insyd de Legislative Assembly make e allow de importation of additional slaves. Na dem pass de bill by de Assembly, buh na e be stalled by de Legislative Council wey na e die at de end of de session.<ref name=":2" /> Na thousands of Black Canadians volunteer make dem serve insyd de War of 1812. Insyd 1819, na Attorney General John Robinson (son of Christopher) declare dat by residing insyd Canada, na dem set black residents free, den dat Canadian courts go protect dema freedom.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011|Archives of Ontario 2011]].</ref><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutend|Historica-Dominion Institute nd]].</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/alvin_mccurdy/settlement.aspx|title=From Slavery to Settlement|series=The Alvin D. McCurdy Collection|work=Archives of Ontario|date=28 December 2011|accessdate=19 March 2011|ref={{SfnRef|Archives of Ontario|2011}}|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214020850/http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/alvin_mccurdy/settlement.aspx|archivedate=14 February 2013}} See Archives of Ontario * {{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/slavery/index.aspx|title=Enslaved Africans in Upper Canada|series=Slavery|work=Archives of Ontario|date=28 December 2011a|accessdate=19 March 2011|ref={{SfnRef|Archives of Ontario|2011a}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104050050/http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/slavery/index.aspx|archive-date=2013-01-04|url-status=dead}} See Archives of Ontario * {{cite book|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/interactives/tl-slaveryincanada/ |title=Slavery in Canada |author=CBC News Interactive |accessdate=2010-11-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120005727/http://www.cbc.ca/news/interactives/tl-slaveryincanada/ |archivedate=20 January 2011 |url-status=live |ref={{SfnRef|CBC News|nd}} }} * {{cite journal |journal=The Beaver |last=Bode |first=Patrick |title=Simcoe and the slaves |page=17 |volume=73 |issue=3 |date=June 1993}} == External links == kjr0ezt91kgk9yuceea6bd2iappemrt 63628 63625 2025-06-16T22:31:20Z DaSupremo 9 /* Read further */ Improve article 63628 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''''Act Against Slavery''''' be an anti-slavery law dem pass on July 9, 1793, insyd de second legislative session of Upper Canada, de colonial division of British North America wey go eventually cam be Ontario.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutenda|Historica-Dominion Institute nda]].</ref> Na e ban de importation of slaves wey na e mandate dat kiddies dem born henceforth to female slaves go be freed upon reaching de age of 25. == Synopsis == Na John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant Governor of de colony, be a supporter of abolition before na he cam to Upper Canada; as a British Member of Parliament, na he describe slavery as an offence against Christianity.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011a|Archives of Ontario 2011a]].</ref><ref name=":2">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFBode1993|Bode 1993]].</ref> By 1792 na de slave population insyd Upper Canada no be large. However, wen na dem compare plus de number of free settlers, na de number no be insignificant. Insyd York (de present-day city of Toronto) na der be 15 African-Canadians wey dey live, while insyd Quebec na dem fi find sam 1,000 slaves. Furthermore, by de time na de Act Against Slavery go be ratified, na de number of slaves wey dey reside insyd Upper Canada significantly increased by de arrival of Loyalist refugees from de south wey na dem bring servants den slaves.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFWilsonnd|Wilson nd]].</ref> At de inaugural meeting of de Executive Council of Upper Canada insyd March 1793, na Simcoe hear from a witness de story of Chloe Cooley, a female slave wey na she be violently removed from Canada for sale insyd de [[United States]]. Na Simcoe ein desire make he abolish slavery insyd Upper Canada be resisted by members of de Legislative Assembly wey na dem own slaves, den therefore na de resulting act be a compromise.<ref name=":0" /> De bulk of de text be due to John White, de Attorney General of de day. Of de 16 members of de assembly, at least na six own slaves.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFTaylor2010|Taylor 2010]].</ref> De law, dem title ''An Act to Prevent the further Introduction of Slaves and to limit the Term of Contracts for Servitude within this Province'', state dat while all slaves insyd de province go remain dem enslave til death, no new slaves go be brought into Upper Canada, den kiddies dem born to female slaves after passage of de act go be freed at de age of 25.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFCBC_Newsnd|CBC News nd]].</ref> Na dis law make Upper Canada "de first jurisdiction insyd de British Empire to pass a law freeing slaves".<ref name=":1" /><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFJean2007|Jean 2007]].</ref> De act remain in force til de British Parliament ein [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]] dem abolish slavery insyd chaw parts of de British Empire. ==Aftermath== Insyd 1798, na Christopher Robinson introduce a bill insyd de Legislative Assembly make e allow de importation of additional slaves. Na dem pass de bill by de Assembly, buh na e be stalled by de Legislative Council wey na e die at de end of de session.<ref name=":2" /> Na thousands of Black Canadians volunteer make dem serve insyd de War of 1812. Insyd 1819, na Attorney General John Robinson (son of Christopher) declare dat by residing insyd Canada, na dem set black residents free, den dat Canadian courts go protect dema freedom.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011|Archives of Ontario 2011]].</ref><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutend|Historica-Dominion Institute nd]].</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/alvin_mccurdy/settlement.aspx|title=From Slavery to Settlement|series=The Alvin D. McCurdy Collection|work=Archives of Ontario|date=28 December 2011|accessdate=19 March 2011|ref={{SfnRef|Archives of Ontario|2011}}|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214020850/http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/alvin_mccurdy/settlement.aspx|archivedate=14 February 2013}} See Archives of Ontario * {{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/slavery/index.aspx|title=Enslaved Africans in Upper Canada|series=Slavery|work=Archives of Ontario|date=28 December 2011a|accessdate=19 March 2011|ref={{SfnRef|Archives of Ontario|2011a}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104050050/http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/slavery/index.aspx|archive-date=2013-01-04|url-status=dead}} See Archives of Ontario * {{cite book|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/interactives/tl-slaveryincanada/ |title=Slavery in Canada |author=CBC News Interactive |accessdate=2010-11-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120005727/http://www.cbc.ca/news/interactives/tl-slaveryincanada/ |archivedate=20 January 2011 |url-status=live |ref={{SfnRef|CBC News|nd}} }} * {{cite journal |journal=The Beaver |last=Bode |first=Patrick |title=Simcoe and the slaves |page=17 |volume=73 |issue=3 |date=June 1993}} * {{cite web|url=http://blackhistorycanada.ca/timeline.php?id=1800|series=Black History in Canada|work=Historica–Dominion Institute|title=Timeline 1800–1900: From Slavery to Settlement|date=nd|accessdate=19 March 2011|ref={{SfnRef|Historica-Dominion Institute|nd}}|archive-date=6 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206183457/http://blackhistorycanada.ca/timeline.php?id=1800|url-status=dead}} See The Historica Dominion Institute, a series with Rosemary Sadlier, President, Ontario Black History Society as writer-consultant. * {{cite web|url=http://blackhistorycanada.ca/topic.php?id=112&themeid=1|series=Black History Canada|work=Historica–Dominion Institute|accessdate=2010-11-20|title=Abolition of Slavery|date=nda|ref={{SfnRef|Historica-Dominion Institute|nda}}|archive-date=6 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706165957/http://blackhistorycanada.ca/topic.php?id=112&themeid=1|url-status=dead}} * {{cite web|last=Michaëlle|first=Jean|title=Her Excellency the Right Honourable Michaëlle Jean Speech on the Occasion of the Student Forum: "From the Abolition of the Slave Trade to the Elimination of Racial Discrimination"|date=21 June 2007|accessdate=12 December 2022|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/news/archive/2007/03/speech-her-excellency-right-honourable-michaelle-jean-governor-general-canada-occasion-student-forum-abolition-slave-trade-elimination-racial-discrimination-.html|url-status=live|ref={{SfnRef|Jean|2007}}}} * {{cite book|title=The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies|url=|url-status=live|last=Taylor|first=Alan|at=Chapter 2, Location 964|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=978-1-4000-4265-4|oclc=503042145|date=2010|location=New York|via=Kindle}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.uppercanadahistory.ca/lluc/lluc3.html|title=Early Canada Historical Narratives: an Act to Prevent the Further Introduction of Slaves|date=nd|accessdate=19 March 2014|first=William R. |last=Wilson|series=Upper Canada History}} == External links == 0wpdvxyn699k83mwjxmcqcjcrrvmmts 63629 63628 2025-06-16T22:36:30Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63629 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''''Act Against Slavery''''' be an anti-slavery law dem pass on July 9, 1793, insyd de second legislative session of Upper Canada, de colonial division of British North America wey go eventually cam be Ontario.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutenda|Historica-Dominion Institute nda]].</ref> Na e ban de importation of slaves wey na e mandate dat kiddies dem born henceforth to female slaves go be freed upon reaching de age of 25. == Synopsis == Na John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant Governor of de colony, be a supporter of abolition before na he cam to Upper Canada; as a British Member of Parliament, na he describe slavery as an offence against Christianity.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011a|Archives of Ontario 2011a]].</ref><ref name=":2">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFBode1993|Bode 1993]].</ref> By 1792 na de slave population insyd Upper Canada no be large. However, wen na dem compare plus de number of free settlers, na de number no be insignificant. Insyd York (de present-day city of Toronto) na der be 15 African-Canadians wey dey live, while insyd Quebec na dem fi find sam 1,000 slaves. Furthermore, by de time na de Act Against Slavery go be ratified, na de number of slaves wey dey reside insyd Upper Canada significantly increased by de arrival of Loyalist refugees from de south wey na dem bring servants den slaves.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFWilsonnd|Wilson nd]].</ref> At de inaugural meeting of de Executive Council of Upper Canada insyd March 1793, na Simcoe hear from a witness de story of Chloe Cooley, a female slave wey na she be violently removed from Canada for sale insyd de [[United States]]. Na Simcoe ein desire make he abolish slavery insyd Upper Canada be resisted by members of de Legislative Assembly wey na dem own slaves, den therefore na de resulting act be a compromise.<ref name=":0" /> De bulk of de text be due to John White, de Attorney General of de day. Of de 16 members of de assembly, at least na six own slaves.<ref name=":1">[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFTaylor2010|Taylor 2010]].</ref> De law, dem title ''An Act to Prevent the further Introduction of Slaves and to limit the Term of Contracts for Servitude within this Province'', state dat while all slaves insyd de province go remain dem enslave til death, no new slaves go be brought into Upper Canada, den kiddies dem born to female slaves after passage of de act go be freed at de age of 25.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFCBC_Newsnd|CBC News nd]].</ref> Na dis law make Upper Canada "de first jurisdiction insyd de British Empire to pass a law freeing slaves".<ref name=":1" /><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFJean2007|Jean 2007]].</ref> De act remain in force til de British Parliament ein [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]] dem abolish slavery insyd chaw parts of de British Empire. ==Aftermath== Insyd 1798, na Christopher Robinson introduce a bill insyd de Legislative Assembly make e allow de importation of additional slaves. Na dem pass de bill by de Assembly, buh na e be stalled by de Legislative Council wey na e die at de end of de session.<ref name=":2" /> Na thousands of Black Canadians volunteer make dem serve insyd de War of 1812. Insyd 1819, na Attorney General John Robinson (son of Christopher) declare dat by residing insyd Canada, na dem set black residents free, den dat Canadian courts go protect dema freedom.<ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFArchives_of_Ontario2011|Archives of Ontario 2011]].</ref><ref>[[:en:Act_Against_Slavery#CITEREFHistorica-Dominion_Institutend|Historica-Dominion Institute nd]].</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/alvin_mccurdy/settlement.aspx|title=From Slavery to Settlement|series=The Alvin D. McCurdy Collection|work=Archives of Ontario|date=28 December 2011|accessdate=19 March 2011|ref={{SfnRef|Archives of Ontario|2011}}|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214020850/http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/alvin_mccurdy/settlement.aspx|archivedate=14 February 2013}} See Archives of Ontario * {{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/slavery/index.aspx|title=Enslaved Africans in Upper Canada|series=Slavery|work=Archives of Ontario|date=28 December 2011a|accessdate=19 March 2011|ref={{SfnRef|Archives of Ontario|2011a}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104050050/http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/slavery/index.aspx|archive-date=2013-01-04|url-status=dead}} See Archives of Ontario * {{cite book|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/interactives/tl-slaveryincanada/ |title=Slavery in Canada |author=CBC News Interactive |accessdate=2010-11-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120005727/http://www.cbc.ca/news/interactives/tl-slaveryincanada/ |archivedate=20 January 2011 |url-status=live |ref={{SfnRef|CBC News|nd}} }} * {{cite journal |journal=The Beaver |last=Bode |first=Patrick |title=Simcoe and the slaves |page=17 |volume=73 |issue=3 |date=June 1993}} * {{cite web|url=http://blackhistorycanada.ca/timeline.php?id=1800|series=Black History in Canada|work=Historica–Dominion Institute|title=Timeline 1800–1900: From Slavery to Settlement|date=nd|accessdate=19 March 2011|ref={{SfnRef|Historica-Dominion Institute|nd}}|archive-date=6 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206183457/http://blackhistorycanada.ca/timeline.php?id=1800|url-status=dead}} See The Historica Dominion Institute, a series with Rosemary Sadlier, President, Ontario Black History Society as writer-consultant. * {{cite web|url=http://blackhistorycanada.ca/topic.php?id=112&themeid=1|series=Black History Canada|work=Historica–Dominion Institute|accessdate=2010-11-20|title=Abolition of Slavery|date=nda|ref={{SfnRef|Historica-Dominion Institute|nda}}|archive-date=6 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706165957/http://blackhistorycanada.ca/topic.php?id=112&themeid=1|url-status=dead}} * {{cite web|last=Michaëlle|first=Jean|title=Her Excellency the Right Honourable Michaëlle Jean Speech on the Occasion of the Student Forum: "From the Abolition of the Slave Trade to the Elimination of Racial Discrimination"|date=21 June 2007|accessdate=12 December 2022|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/news/archive/2007/03/speech-her-excellency-right-honourable-michaelle-jean-governor-general-canada-occasion-student-forum-abolition-slave-trade-elimination-racial-discrimination-.html|url-status=live|ref={{SfnRef|Jean|2007}}}} * {{cite book|title=The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies|url=|url-status=live|last=Taylor|first=Alan|at=Chapter 2, Location 964|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=978-1-4000-4265-4|oclc=503042145|date=2010|location=New York|via=Kindle}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.uppercanadahistory.ca/lluc/lluc3.html|title=Early Canada Historical Narratives: an Act to Prevent the Further Introduction of Slaves|date=nd|accessdate=19 March 2014|first=William R. |last=Wilson|series=Upper Canada History}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q20100936|c=no|q=no|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Upper Canadian Act Against Slavery|wikt=no|species=no}} [[Category:1793 insyd law]] [[Category:Legal history of Canada]] [[Category:Upper Canada]] [[Category:Slavery insyd Canada]] [[Category:History of Black people insyd Canada]] [[Category:Abolitionism insyd North America]] [[Category:Canadian legislation]] [[Category:Slavery legislation]] [[Category:1793 insyd Upper Canada]] [[Category:1793 insyd British law]] [[Category:18th century insyd slavery]] 09xtt37emncdq6te3qfla1b5be4nftr 0 17156 63659 62754 2025-06-16T23:09:57Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 63659 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''Blockade of Africa''' begin insyd 1808 after de United Kingdom outlaw de [[Atlantic slave trade]], wey dey make am illegal for British ships to transport slaves. Na de Royal Navy immediately establish a presence off Africa to enforce de ban, dem call de West Africa Squadron. Although na de ban initially apply to British ships per, na Britain negotiate treaties plus oda countries to give de Royal Navy de right to intercept den search dema ships for slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|last2=Warnock|first2=Amanda|title=Encyclopedia of the middle passage|date=2007|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=9780313334801|pages=xxi, xxxiii–xxxiv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UjRYKePKrB8C&pg=PR21}}</ref> == References == jbht00d1vtqi3aucpfqsyuuudoqx5ac 63672 63659 2025-06-16T23:26:52Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63672 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''Blockade of Africa''' begin insyd 1808 after de United Kingdom outlaw de [[Atlantic slave trade]], wey dey make am illegal for British ships to transport slaves. Na de Royal Navy immediately establish a presence off Africa to enforce de ban, dem call de West Africa Squadron. Although na de ban initially apply to British ships per, na Britain negotiate treaties plus oda countries to give de Royal Navy de right to intercept den search dema ships for slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|last2=Warnock|first2=Amanda|title=Encyclopedia of the middle passage|date=2007|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=9780313334801|pages=xxi, xxxiii–xxxiv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UjRYKePKrB8C&pg=PR21}}</ref> Na de 1807 Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves abolish de intercontinental slave trade insyd de United States buh na e no widely be enforced. From 1819, na dem make sam effort by de United States Navy make dem prevent de slave trade. Na dis mostly consist of patrols of de shores of de Americas den insyd de mid-Atlantic, na de latter be largely unsuccessful secof de difficulty of intercepting ships mid-ocean. As part of de Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842, na dem gree say na both countries go work togeda on de abolition of de slave trade, wich na dem deem piracy, den to continue de blockade of Africa. Na US Navy involvement continue til de beginning of de American Civil War, insyd 1861. De year wey dey follow, na de [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] administration give de UK full authority make dem intercept US ships. lNa dem no abolish slavery insyd de United States til 1865, wen na Congress ratify de [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]]. Na de Royal Navy squadron remain in operation til 1870. == References == ct4277qa96ndlppjhnhkt5tb6quy3f0 63676 63672 2025-06-16T23:33:35Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63676 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''Blockade of Africa''' begin insyd 1808 after de United Kingdom outlaw de [[Atlantic slave trade]], wey dey make am illegal for British ships to transport slaves. Na de Royal Navy immediately establish a presence off Africa to enforce de ban, dem call de West Africa Squadron. Although na de ban initially apply to British ships per, na Britain negotiate treaties plus oda countries to give de Royal Navy de right to intercept den search dema ships for slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|last2=Warnock|first2=Amanda|title=Encyclopedia of the middle passage|date=2007|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=9780313334801|pages=xxi, xxxiii–xxxiv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UjRYKePKrB8C&pg=PR21}}</ref> Na de 1807 Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves abolish de intercontinental slave trade insyd de United States buh na e no widely be enforced. From 1819, na dem make sam effort by de United States Navy make dem prevent de slave trade. Na dis mostly consist of patrols of de shores of de Americas den insyd de mid-Atlantic, na de latter be largely unsuccessful secof de difficulty of intercepting ships mid-ocean. As part of de Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842, na dem gree say na both countries go work togeda on de abolition of de slave trade, wich na dem deem piracy, den to continue de blockade of Africa. Na US Navy involvement continue til de beginning of de American Civil War, insyd 1861. De year wey dey follow, na de [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] administration give de UK full authority make dem intercept US ships. lNa dem no abolish slavery insyd de United States til 1865, wen na Congress ratify de [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]]. Na de Royal Navy squadron remain in operation til 1870. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://archives.history.ac.uk/1807commemorated/exhibitions/museums/chasing.html Chasing Freedom: The Royal Navy and the Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20000819035053/http://history.navy.mil/danfs/index.html Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships] at the Wayback Machine (archived 19 August 2000) * [http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20110608085027/http%3A//www.history.navy.mil/danfs/s15/somers%2Dii.htm USS Somers] at the Library of Congress Web Archives (archived 8 June 2011) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040302054907/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/a7/alligator-iii.htm USS Alligator] at the Wayback Machine (archived 2 March 2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040319205951/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/c13/constitution.htm USS Constitution] at the Wayback Machine (archived 19 March 2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040315041521/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/c7/chesapeake-i.htm USS Chesapeake] at the Wayback Machine (archived 15 March 2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040427000226/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/s6/saratoga-iii.htm USS Saratoga] at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 April 2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040316131502/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/n5/niagara-ii.htm USS Niagara] at the Wayback Machine (archived 16 March 2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040302143727/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/d5/dolphin-iii.htm USS Dolphin] at the Wayback Machine (archived 2 March 2004) k4qju49bu7g5lski5zkm18p4jxd5nro 63677 63676 2025-06-16T23:34:50Z DaSupremo 9 Add categories 63677 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''Blockade of Africa''' begin insyd 1808 after de United Kingdom outlaw de [[Atlantic slave trade]], wey dey make am illegal for British ships to transport slaves. Na de Royal Navy immediately establish a presence off Africa to enforce de ban, dem call de West Africa Squadron. Although na de ban initially apply to British ships per, na Britain negotiate treaties plus oda countries to give de Royal Navy de right to intercept den search dema ships for slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|last2=Warnock|first2=Amanda|title=Encyclopedia of the middle passage|date=2007|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=9780313334801|pages=xxi, xxxiii–xxxiv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UjRYKePKrB8C&pg=PR21}}</ref> Na de 1807 Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves abolish de intercontinental slave trade insyd de United States buh na e no widely be enforced. From 1819, na dem make sam effort by de United States Navy make dem prevent de slave trade. Na dis mostly consist of patrols of de shores of de Americas den insyd de mid-Atlantic, na de latter be largely unsuccessful secof de difficulty of intercepting ships mid-ocean. As part of de Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842, na dem gree say na both countries go work togeda on de abolition of de slave trade, wich na dem deem piracy, den to continue de blockade of Africa. Na US Navy involvement continue til de beginning of de American Civil War, insyd 1861. De year wey dey follow, na de [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] administration give de UK full authority make dem intercept US ships. lNa dem no abolish slavery insyd de United States til 1865, wen na Congress ratify de [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]]. Na de Royal Navy squadron remain in operation til 1870. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://archives.history.ac.uk/1807commemorated/exhibitions/museums/chasing.html Chasing Freedom: The Royal Navy and the Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20000819035053/http://history.navy.mil/danfs/index.html Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships] at the Wayback Machine (archived 19 August 2000) * [http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20110608085027/http%3A//www.history.navy.mil/danfs/s15/somers%2Dii.htm USS Somers] at the Library of Congress Web Archives (archived 8 June 2011) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040302054907/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/a7/alligator-iii.htm USS Alligator] at the Wayback Machine (archived 2 March 2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040319205951/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/c13/constitution.htm USS Constitution] at the Wayback Machine (archived 19 March 2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040315041521/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/c7/chesapeake-i.htm USS Chesapeake] at the Wayback Machine (archived 15 March 2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040427000226/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/s6/saratoga-iii.htm USS Saratoga] at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 April 2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040316131502/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/n5/niagara-ii.htm USS Niagara] at the Wayback Machine (archived 16 March 2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040302143727/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/d5/dolphin-iii.htm USS Dolphin] at the Wayback Machine (archived 2 March 2004) [[Category:Blockades by de United States|Africa]] [[Category:Blockades by de United Kingdom|Africa]] [[Category:Atlantic slave trade]] [[Category:History of West Africa]] [[Category:19th-century history of de Royal Navy]] [[Category:Slavery insyd de British Empire]] [[Category:History of de Atlantic Ocean]] [[Category:Abolitionism insyd Africa]] [[Category:Slavery insyd South America]] [[Category:Slavery insyd North America]] [[Category:Slavery insyd de Caribbean]] [[Category:Anti-slavery military operations]] o9ys145vavk9qxtlxprddc0wnxnt5sz 0 17234 63443 63110 2025-06-16T15:07:36Z Suglo20 1515 Added a translation 63443 wikitext text/x-wiki   '''Chief''' '''Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti''', MON (/fʊnmi ˈlaɪjoʊ ˈrænsəm ˈkuːti/; wey people also know as '''Funmilayo Aníkúlápó-Kuti''', be Nigerian woman wey fight for women dem rights. Dem born am on 25 October 1900 and die on 13 April 1978. Her full name be '''Frances Abigail Olufunmilayo Olufela Folorunso Thomas'''. She be teacher, political activist, suffragist and she fight make women too get voice for voting and decision-making. Fumilayo Ransome Kuti born for Abeokuta, wey dey inside wetin now be Ogun State for Nigeria. She be di first woman wey ever go Abeokuta Grammar School.<ref name="lioness-lisabi">{{Cite web|last=Agunbiade|first=Tayo|title=Remembering Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti: Nigeria's 'lioness of Lisabi'|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/10/1/the-lioness-of-lisabi-who-ended-unfair-taxes-for-nigerian-women|access-date=9 March 2022|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref> When she grow small, she start work as teacher, and she help organize some of di first preschool classes for di country. She also arrange literacy classes make poor women fit learn how to read and write. For di 1940s, Ransome-Kuti form di Abeokuta Women’s Union to fight for women dem rights. She dey ask say make women get more say for local government matter, and make dem stop di unfair taxes wey dem dey collect from market women. Di media call am "Lioness of Lisabi",<ref name="Cheryl">{{Cite book|last=Johnson-Odim|first=Cheryl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyMyspsywPsC|title=For Women and the Nation: Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti of Nigeria|last2=Mba|first2=Nina Emma|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1997|isbn=0-252-06613-8|author-link2=Nina Emma Mba}}</ref>: 77  as she lead protests and marches wey reach like 10,000 women. Because of dis, di king (Alake) wey dey rule di place step down small for 1949. As her power for politics grow, she join di Nigerian independence movement, go meetings and conferences, and even travel go abroad to talk about how Nigeria own constitution for be. She later lead di forming of Nigerian Women’s Union and Federation of Nigerian Women’s Societies. She fight make Nigerian women fit vote, and she also join plenty international peace and women rights movements Ransome-Kuti win di Lenin Peace Prize and dem give am Order of the Niger because of her good works. For her old age, she still stand behind her sons as dem talk against di military government for Nigeria. She die at age 77 after she get injury from military raid wey happen for her family property. Her children include '''Fela Kuti''' (di famous musician, full name Olufela Ransome-Kuti), Beko Ransome-Kuti (doctor and activist), and Olikoye Ransome-Kut'''i''', wey be one-time health minister for Nigeria. == '''Early life and education''' == Frances Abigail Olufunmilayo Olufela Folorunso Thomas born on 25 October 1900 for Abeokuta, inside wetin now be Ogun State, Nigeria. That time, the place be part of Southern Nigeria Protectorate under British rule<ref name=":1">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Funmilayo-Ransome-Kuti</ref>. Her papa be Chief Daniel Olumeyuwa Thomas (1869–1954), from one big family called Jibolu-Taiwo. Her mama be Lucretia Phyllis Omoyeni Adeosolu (1874–1956). Her papa dey farm and sell palm produce, while her mama work as a seamstress (dressmaker)'''.'''<ref name=":0">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Funmilayo-Ransome-Kuti</ref> Frances her papa, Daniel, be pikin of Ebenezer Sobowale Thomas, wey dem born for Freetown''',''' Sierra Leone, and Abigail Fakemi, wey come from Ilesa, one Yoruba town. Di oldest ancestor wey people know from her papa side be her great-grandma, Sarah Taiwo (Ebenezer him mama). Sarah be Yoruba woman wey slave traders capture for early 1800s, but later she return back home to her family for Abeokuta. Sarah first marry Sobowale Thomas, and later marry two more men. Di children and grandchildren wey come from Sarah and all her husbands – including di Jibolu-Taiwo family – be among di first Christians for that area. Dem help spread Christianity strong strong for Abeokuta. Frances her mama be pikin of Isaac Adeosolu, wey come from Abeokuta, and Harriet, wey be daughter of Adeboye from Ile-Ife, one old Yoruba town. Her mama and papa marry for 1897, but di first two children wey dem born die as babies before Frances come enter this world.<ref name="Cheryl" /> 19–23  Even though e no common that time say Nigerian people go spend money make girls go school, Frances her mama and papa believe say education dey important for both boys and girls<ref name="Cheryl" />. She go Abeokuta Grammar School for secondary school<ref name=":0" />. Di school first be only for boys, but for 1914, dem start dey take girls, and Frances be di first among six girls wey register that year.<ref name="Cheryl" /> From 1919 to 1922, she go Wincham Hall School for Girls for Cheshire, England<ref>https://archive.org/details/olufunmilayo-ransome-kuti/</ref>. For there she learn elocution (how to talk well)''',''' music, how to sew cloth (dressmaking), French language, and housework skills. Na for there too she decide say she no go use “Frances” again, but go dey use her short Yoruba name – Funmilayo'''.'''<ref name="Cheryl" /> Dem say e be like say na because of racism she face while she dey that school.<ref>https://archive.org/details/expandingboundar0000john/page/144</ref> After school, she return Abeokuta come work as teacher.<ref name="lioness-lisabi" /> On 20 January 1925, Funmilayo marry Reverend Israel Oludotun Ransome-Kuti''',''' wey come from di famous Ransome-Kuti family. <ref name="Cheryl" /> Israel go Abeokuta Grammar School some years before Funmilayo, and as she still dey school, di two of dem become friends, later dem start courtship (love relationship).<ref name="Cheryl" /> Israel get work as school principal, and he believe say people from different tribes and areas for come together make dem stop all di division. He later help form Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT) and also Nigerian Union of Students.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Di marriage between Funmilayo and Israel last for 30 years, until Israel die. Dem marriage be one wey get equality and deep respect between husband and wife.<ref name="Cheryl" /> After she marry, Funmilayo Ransome-Kut'''i''' stop her teaching work, but she no stay idle. For 1928, she start one of di first preschool classes for Nigeria. Around dat same time, she create one club for young women from rich families, make dem learn how to improve themselves. She also organize classes for women wey no know read and write.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Between 1935 and 1936, she and her husband buy one secondhand car from England, and dem ship am come Nigeria. Funmilayo come become di first woman for Abeokuta wey drive motor.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Ransome-Kuti and her husband born four children: one girl wey dem name Dolupo (born 1926), and three boys – Olikoye "Koye" (1927), Olufela "Fela" (1938), and Bekololari "Beko" (1940). == '''Activism''' == === Abeokuta Women's Union === For 1932, Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti help start Abeokuta Ladies Club.<ref name="lioness-lisabi" /> At first, di club focus on charity work, sewing, catering, and adult education classes.<ref name=":0" /> Most of di early members be Christian women wey go Western school, and dem come from middle-class homes. But by 1940s, di club start dey go more into politics. One of her illiterate friends tell her say she wan learn how to read, so Funmilayo begin organize literacy workshops for market women through di club. Through this, she come understand better how many Nigerian women dey suffer from social and political unfairness.<ref name=":2">https://archive.org/details/expandingboundar0000john/page/144</ref> She write say even though she come from better background, the real life of Nigerian women be like those wey carry baby for back and dey farm from morning reach evening, no be the ones wey chop tea, sugar, and flour for morning.<ref>http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1ddr6f8 </ref> For 1944, she lead one successful campaign wey stop local authorities from seizing rice from market women with lies.<ref>https://archive.org/details/internationalenc0000hann/page/251</ref> For 1946, dem officially change di club name to Abeokuta Women’s Union (AWU), and now e open to all women for Abeokuta. Di union begin fight against bad price controls and taxes wey dem dey impose on market women. Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti be di president of di AWU.<ref name=":1" /> She form di union with Grace Eniola Soyinka<ref>http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/africanjournals/pdfs/glendora%20review/vol2no2/graa002002007.pdf</ref> wey be her husband ein niece and Mama of Nobel Prize winner Wole Soyinka.<ref>http://www.jstor.org/stable/160896</ref> Di AWU come grow big, get 20,000 registered members and almost 100,000 more supporters.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=HwqQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA282</ref> To make all women feel united and avoid class wahala, Funmilayo and di other women wey go school begin speak Yoruba and wear traditional Yoruba cloth for meetings and union events.<ref name=":0" /> Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti her first big political move happen when she lead Abeokuta Women’s Union (AWU) protest against tax wey dem put on women. For Abeokuta that time, apart from normal tax like income tax and water bill, market women still get one special tax wey dem dey pay straight to market supervisors, wey dem dey call “parakoyi”.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Alake Ademola II, wey be di traditional ruler for Abeokuta, come join di colonial government through indirect rule. Na im start this women tax after dem set up Egba Native Administration for 1914.<ref name=":0" /> When Funmilayo and AWU try beg di British authorities make dem remove di Alake and cancel di tax but e no work, dem begin write to newspapers and share petitions everywhere.<ref name=":0" /> To put more pressure, AWU women refuse to pay di tax, hold long vigil for front of di Alake ein palace, and even check di financial records of di Sole Native Authority (SNA). Dem no only wan stop di tax, but also demand say women too for get voice for di SNA executive council.<ref name=":2" /> By late 1947, Abeokuta authorities start to stop women from doing parades or demonstrations, say dem no go give permit again. But Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and her people no give up. Dem come talk say dem dey plan “picnics” and “festivals” instead — wey really be protest — and dis draw like 10,000 women come join. Some of di protest even turn gbege with police.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Funmilayo train di women how to handle tear gas canisters wey police dey throw. Di AWU use membership dues to pay lawyers for women wey dem arrest<ref name="Cheryl" />. One time, British district officer shout say make she keep her women quiet, but Funmilayo fire am back: “Dem born you, but you no get home training! You go talk to your mama like that?” Di West African Pilot newspaper call her “Lioness of Lisabi”, true true warrior woman!<ref name="Cheryl" /> Tension between AWU women and di authorities reach boiling point for February 1948, when di Alake talk say AWU women be vipers wey nobody fit tame, and he come ban Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti from entering di palace for political matters. Right after dat, AWU women vex, dem block di palace gate, no allow di British district officer wey come visit to comot. Di thing turn gbege when Funmilayo hold di steering whee'''l''' of di district officer ein car and no gree let go, until di man force her hand comot.<ref name="Cheryl" /> People come start support di women strong. Early 1948, AWU still dey fight di tax with petitions, press conferences, newspaper letters, plus more demonstrations.By late April 1948, after plenty pressure, di Alake finally hear, he '''c'''ancel di women tax and set up one committee to check all di AWU complaints<ref name="Cheryl" />. For early 1949, all di hard work of AWU make di Alake step down small (abdicate temporary).<ref name=":0" /> Di thing shock everybody as newspapers across Nigeria report am. From dat time, Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and her AWU women become popular everywhere.<ref name=":2" /> == National work == For 1947, di National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) send delegation go London to protest one constitution wey di British people wan bring for Nigeria. Funmilayo Ransome-Kut'''i''' be di only woman wey join di trip.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=7Q8Ix-M8LWcC&pg=PA53</ref><ref name=":2" /> While she dey London, she talk for big-big places like di London Women’s Parliamentary Committee, National Federation of Women’s Institutes, and other groups, where she raise voice for Nigerian women matter. She also cause wahala small when she write one article for Daily Worker newspaper, talk say colonial rule don sideline Nigerian Daily Worker newspaper bad, both for politics and for economy.<ref name=":2" /> Later for 1949, one Western Provinces conference happen for Nigeria to talk new constitution. Ransome-Kuti represent Abeokuta, and again, she be di only woman for the whole meeting. She no keep quiet, she talk bold say women must get voting rights, and she fight against the plan to use one indirect voting system.<ref name="Cheryl" /> r5ibtz7cuvoku39d7beo9bdg927z9kw 63447 63443 2025-06-16T15:34:51Z Suglo20 1515 Added a translation 63447 wikitext text/x-wiki   '''Chief''' '''Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti''', MON (/fʊnmi ˈlaɪjoʊ ˈrænsəm ˈkuːti/; wey people also know as '''Funmilayo Aníkúlápó-Kuti''', be Nigerian woman wey fight for women dem rights. Dem born am on 25 October 1900 and die on 13 April 1978. Her full name be '''Frances Abigail Olufunmilayo Olufela Folorunso Thomas'''. She be teacher, political activist, suffragist and she fight make women too get voice for voting and decision-making. Fumilayo Ransome Kuti born for Abeokuta, wey dey inside wetin now be Ogun State for Nigeria. She be di first woman wey ever go Abeokuta Grammar School.<ref name="lioness-lisabi">{{Cite web|last=Agunbiade|first=Tayo|title=Remembering Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti: Nigeria's 'lioness of Lisabi'|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/10/1/the-lioness-of-lisabi-who-ended-unfair-taxes-for-nigerian-women|access-date=9 March 2022|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref> When she grow small, she start work as teacher, and she help organize some of di first preschool classes for di country. She also arrange literacy classes make poor women fit learn how to read and write. For di 1940s, Ransome-Kuti form di Abeokuta Women’s Union to fight for women dem rights. She dey ask say make women get more say for local government matter, and make dem stop di unfair taxes wey dem dey collect from market women. Di media call am "Lioness of Lisabi",<ref name="Cheryl">{{Cite book|last=Johnson-Odim|first=Cheryl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyMyspsywPsC|title=For Women and the Nation: Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti of Nigeria|last2=Mba|first2=Nina Emma|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1997|isbn=0-252-06613-8|author-link2=Nina Emma Mba}}</ref>: 77  as she lead protests and marches wey reach like 10,000 women. Because of dis, di king (Alake) wey dey rule di place step down small for 1949. As her power for politics grow, she join di Nigerian independence movement, go meetings and conferences, and even travel go abroad to talk about how Nigeria own constitution for be. She later lead di forming of Nigerian Women’s Union and Federation of Nigerian Women’s Societies. She fight make Nigerian women fit vote, and she also join plenty international peace and women rights movements Ransome-Kuti win di Lenin Peace Prize and dem give am Order of the Niger because of her good works. For her old age, she still stand behind her sons as dem talk against di military government for Nigeria. She die at age 77 after she get injury from military raid wey happen for her family property. Her children include '''Fela Kuti''' (di famous musician, full name Olufela Ransome-Kuti), Beko Ransome-Kuti (doctor and activist), and Olikoye Ransome-Kut'''i''', wey be one-time health minister for Nigeria. == '''Early life and education''' == Frances Abigail Olufunmilayo Olufela Folorunso Thomas born on 25 October 1900 for Abeokuta, inside wetin now be Ogun State, Nigeria. That time, the place be part of Southern Nigeria Protectorate under British rule<ref name=":1">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Funmilayo-Ransome-Kuti</ref>. Her papa be Chief Daniel Olumeyuwa Thomas (1869–1954), from one big family called Jibolu-Taiwo. Her mama be Lucretia Phyllis Omoyeni Adeosolu (1874–1956). Her papa dey farm and sell palm produce, while her mama work as a seamstress (dressmaker)'''.'''<ref name=":0">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Funmilayo-Ransome-Kuti</ref> Frances her papa, Daniel, be pikin of Ebenezer Sobowale Thomas, wey dem born for Freetown''',''' Sierra Leone, and Abigail Fakemi, wey come from Ilesa, one Yoruba town. Di oldest ancestor wey people know from her papa side be her great-grandma, Sarah Taiwo (Ebenezer him mama). Sarah be Yoruba woman wey slave traders capture for early 1800s, but later she return back home to her family for Abeokuta. Sarah first marry Sobowale Thomas, and later marry two more men. Di children and grandchildren wey come from Sarah and all her husbands – including di Jibolu-Taiwo family – be among di first Christians for that area. Dem help spread Christianity strong strong for Abeokuta. Frances her mama be pikin of Isaac Adeosolu, wey come from Abeokuta, and Harriet, wey be daughter of Adeboye from Ile-Ife, one old Yoruba town. Her mama and papa marry for 1897, but di first two children wey dem born die as babies before Frances come enter this world.<ref name="Cheryl" /> 19–23  Even though e no common that time say Nigerian people go spend money make girls go school, Frances her mama and papa believe say education dey important for both boys and girls<ref name="Cheryl" />. She go Abeokuta Grammar School for secondary school<ref name=":0" />. Di school first be only for boys, but for 1914, dem start dey take girls, and Frances be di first among six girls wey register that year.<ref name="Cheryl" /> From 1919 to 1922, she go Wincham Hall School for Girls for Cheshire, England<ref>https://archive.org/details/olufunmilayo-ransome-kuti/</ref>. For there she learn elocution (how to talk well)''',''' music, how to sew cloth (dressmaking), French language, and housework skills. Na for there too she decide say she no go use “Frances” again, but go dey use her short Yoruba name – Funmilayo'''.'''<ref name="Cheryl" /> Dem say e be like say na because of racism she face while she dey that school.<ref>https://archive.org/details/expandingboundar0000john/page/144</ref> After school, she return Abeokuta come work as teacher.<ref name="lioness-lisabi" /> On 20 January 1925, Funmilayo marry Reverend Israel Oludotun Ransome-Kuti''',''' wey come from di famous Ransome-Kuti family. <ref name="Cheryl" /> Israel go Abeokuta Grammar School some years before Funmilayo, and as she still dey school, di two of dem become friends, later dem start courtship (love relationship).<ref name="Cheryl" /> Israel get work as school principal, and he believe say people from different tribes and areas for come together make dem stop all di division. He later help form Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT) and also Nigerian Union of Students.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Di marriage between Funmilayo and Israel last for 30 years, until Israel die. Dem marriage be one wey get equality and deep respect between husband and wife.<ref name="Cheryl" /> After she marry, Funmilayo Ransome-Kut'''i''' stop her teaching work, but she no stay idle. For 1928, she start one of di first preschool classes for Nigeria. Around dat same time, she create one club for young women from rich families, make dem learn how to improve themselves. She also organize classes for women wey no know read and write.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Between 1935 and 1936, she and her husband buy one secondhand car from England, and dem ship am come Nigeria. Funmilayo come become di first woman for Abeokuta wey drive motor.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Ransome-Kuti and her husband born four children: one girl wey dem name Dolupo (born 1926), and three boys – Olikoye "Koye" (1927), Olufela "Fela" (1938), and Bekololari "Beko" (1940). == '''Activism''' == === Abeokuta Women's Union === For 1932, Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti help start Abeokuta Ladies Club.<ref name="lioness-lisabi" /> At first, di club focus on charity work, sewing, catering, and adult education classes.<ref name=":0" /> Most of di early members be Christian women wey go Western school, and dem come from middle-class homes. But by 1940s, di club start dey go more into politics. One of her illiterate friends tell her say she wan learn how to read, so Funmilayo begin organize literacy workshops for market women through di club. Through this, she come understand better how many Nigerian women dey suffer from social and political unfairness.<ref name=":2">https://archive.org/details/expandingboundar0000john/page/144</ref> She write say even though she come from better background, the real life of Nigerian women be like those wey carry baby for back and dey farm from morning reach evening, no be the ones wey chop tea, sugar, and flour for morning.<ref>http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1ddr6f8 </ref> For 1944, she lead one successful campaign wey stop local authorities from seizing rice from market women with lies.<ref name=":3">https://archive.org/details/internationalenc0000hann/page/251</ref> For 1946, dem officially change di club name to Abeokuta Women’s Union (AWU), and now e open to all women for Abeokuta. Di union begin fight against bad price controls and taxes wey dem dey impose on market women. Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti be di president of di AWU.<ref name=":1" /> She form di union with Grace Eniola Soyinka<ref>http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/africanjournals/pdfs/glendora%20review/vol2no2/graa002002007.pdf</ref> wey be her husband ein niece and Mama of Nobel Prize winner Wole Soyinka.<ref>http://www.jstor.org/stable/160896</ref> Di AWU come grow big, get 20,000 registered members and almost 100,000 more supporters.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=HwqQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA282</ref> To make all women feel united and avoid class wahala, Funmilayo and di other women wey go school begin speak Yoruba and wear traditional Yoruba cloth for meetings and union events.<ref name=":0" /> Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti her first big political move happen when she lead Abeokuta Women’s Union (AWU) protest against tax wey dem put on women. For Abeokuta that time, apart from normal tax like income tax and water bill, market women still get one special tax wey dem dey pay straight to market supervisors, wey dem dey call “parakoyi”.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Alake Ademola II, wey be di traditional ruler for Abeokuta, come join di colonial government through indirect rule. Na im start this women tax after dem set up Egba Native Administration for 1914.<ref name=":0" /> When Funmilayo and AWU try beg di British authorities make dem remove di Alake and cancel di tax but e no work, dem begin write to newspapers and share petitions everywhere.<ref name=":0" /> To put more pressure, AWU women refuse to pay di tax, hold long vigil for front of di Alake ein palace, and even check di financial records of di Sole Native Authority (SNA). Dem no only wan stop di tax, but also demand say women too for get voice for di SNA executive council.<ref name=":2" /> By late 1947, Abeokuta authorities start to stop women from doing parades or demonstrations, say dem no go give permit again. But Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and her people no give up. Dem come talk say dem dey plan “picnics” and “festivals” instead — wey really be protest — and dis draw like 10,000 women come join. Some of di protest even turn gbege with police.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Funmilayo train di women how to handle tear gas canisters wey police dey throw. Di AWU use membership dues to pay lawyers for women wey dem arrest<ref name="Cheryl" />. One time, British district officer shout say make she keep her women quiet, but Funmilayo fire am back: “Dem born you, but you no get home training! You go talk to your mama like that?” Di West African Pilot newspaper call her “Lioness of Lisabi”, true true warrior woman!<ref name="Cheryl" /> Tension between AWU women and di authorities reach boiling point for February 1948, when di Alake talk say AWU women be vipers wey nobody fit tame, and he come ban Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti from entering di palace for political matters. Right after dat, AWU women vex, dem block di palace gate, no allow di British district officer wey come visit to comot. Di thing turn gbege when Funmilayo hold di steering whee'''l''' of di district officer ein car and no gree let go, until di man force her hand comot.<ref name="Cheryl" /> People come start support di women strong. Early 1948, AWU still dey fight di tax with petitions, press conferences, newspaper letters, plus more demonstrations.By late April 1948, after plenty pressure, di Alake finally hear, he '''c'''ancel di women tax and set up one committee to check all di AWU complaints<ref name="Cheryl" />. For early 1949, all di hard work of AWU make di Alake step down small (abdicate temporary).<ref name=":0" /> Di thing shock everybody as newspapers across Nigeria report am. From dat time, Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and her AWU women become popular everywhere.<ref name=":2" /> == National work == For 1947, di National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) send delegation go London to protest one constitution wey di British people wan bring for Nigeria. Funmilayo Ransome-Kut'''i''' be di only woman wey join di trip.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=7Q8Ix-M8LWcC&pg=PA53</ref><ref name=":2" /> While she dey London, she talk for big-big places like di London Women’s Parliamentary Committee, National Federation of Women’s Institutes, and other groups, where she raise voice for Nigerian women matter. She also cause wahala small when she write one article for Daily Worker newspaper, talk say colonial rule don sideline Nigerian Daily Worker newspaper bad, both for politics and for economy.<ref name=":2" /> Later for 1949, one Western Provinces conference happen for Nigeria to talk new constitution. Ransome-Kuti represent Abeokuta, and again, she be di only woman for the whole meeting. She no keep quiet, she talk bold say women must get voting rights, and she fight against the plan to use one indirect voting system.<ref name="Cheryl" /> For May 1949, Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti talk say make dem form Nigerian Women’s Union (NWU) so women rights go get stronger voice across di whole country. Her AWU people support am, and di AWU now turn Abeokuta branch of NWU<ref name="Cheryl" />. After dat, she begin waka all over Nigeria to help start NWU branches for different towns and cities. She be presido for both NWU and her hometown union for Abeokuta. NWU dey fight for, make women get right to vote (suffrage), make dem cancel electoral college system, ake women get more chance for government matter<ref name="Cheryl" /> She be one of di people wey start NCNC party, and for 1951, she contest for regional assembly under NCNC, but she no win. <ref name=":1" /> One reason be say special tax rule block many of her supporters – especially women – from voting.<ref name=":0" /> She later become NCNC Western Working Committee treasurer, and then President of di NCNC Women’s Organization for di Western Region.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59221-209-3</ref> For 1953, she organize one conference for Abeokuta wey discuss women matter for voting and politics. 400 women delegates come for di two-day event. Na from dis conference dem create Federation of Nigerian Women’s Societies (FNWS).<ref name=":3" /> Di FNWS fight for, make women enter politics well, better school opportunities, more social services and health care<ref name=":0" /> Early 1950s, Ransome-Kuti get appointment into di Western House of Chiefs<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funmilayo_Ransome-Kuti#cite_note-16</ref>. she be di first woman to enter de western house<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funmilayo_Ransome-Kuti#cite_note-18</ref> and one of di very few women wey hold any chief title for Nigeria dat time. Dem also give her chieftaincy title<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funmilayo_Ransome-Kuti#cite_note-17</ref> , Oloye of Yoruba people, and she join di board for Nigerian Union of Teachers.<ref name=":0" /> o1ye9wydxrlw5ugor1vle4wh3mhzvob 63468 63447 2025-06-16T16:00:57Z Suglo20 1515 Added a translation 63468 wikitext text/x-wiki   '''Chief''' '''Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti''', MON (/fʊnmi ˈlaɪjoʊ ˈrænsəm ˈkuːti/; wey people also know as '''Funmilayo Aníkúlápó-Kuti''', be Nigerian woman wey fight for women dem rights. Dem born am on 25 October 1900 and die on 13 April 1978. Her full name be '''Frances Abigail Olufunmilayo Olufela Folorunso Thomas'''. She be teacher, political activist, suffragist and she fight make women too get voice for voting and decision-making. Fumilayo Ransome Kuti born for Abeokuta, wey dey inside wetin now be Ogun State for Nigeria. She be di first woman wey ever go Abeokuta Grammar School.<ref name="lioness-lisabi">{{Cite web|last=Agunbiade|first=Tayo|title=Remembering Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti: Nigeria's 'lioness of Lisabi'|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/10/1/the-lioness-of-lisabi-who-ended-unfair-taxes-for-nigerian-women|access-date=9 March 2022|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref> When she grow small, she start work as teacher, and she help organize some of di first preschool classes for di country. She also arrange literacy classes make poor women fit learn how to read and write. For di 1940s, Ransome-Kuti form di Abeokuta Women’s Union to fight for women dem rights. She dey ask say make women get more say for local government matter, and make dem stop di unfair taxes wey dem dey collect from market women. Di media call am "Lioness of Lisabi",<ref name="Cheryl">{{Cite book|last=Johnson-Odim|first=Cheryl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyMyspsywPsC|title=For Women and the Nation: Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti of Nigeria|last2=Mba|first2=Nina Emma|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1997|isbn=0-252-06613-8|author-link2=Nina Emma Mba}}</ref>: 77  as she lead protests and marches wey reach like 10,000 women. Because of dis, di king (Alake) wey dey rule di place step down small for 1949. As her power for politics grow, she join di Nigerian independence movement, go meetings and conferences, and even travel go abroad to talk about how Nigeria own constitution for be. She later lead di forming of Nigerian Women’s Union and Federation of Nigerian Women’s Societies. She fight make Nigerian women fit vote, and she also join plenty international peace and women rights movements Ransome-Kuti win di Lenin Peace Prize and dem give am Order of the Niger because of her good works. For her old age, she still stand behind her sons as dem talk against di military government for Nigeria. She die at age 77 after she get injury from military raid wey happen for her family property. Her children include '''Fela Kuti''' (di famous musician, full name Olufela Ransome-Kuti), Beko Ransome-Kuti (doctor and activist), and Olikoye Ransome-Kut'''i''', wey be one-time health minister for Nigeria. == '''Early life and education''' == Frances Abigail Olufunmilayo Olufela Folorunso Thomas born on 25 October 1900 for Abeokuta, inside wetin now be Ogun State, Nigeria. That time, the place be part of Southern Nigeria Protectorate under British rule<ref name=":1">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Funmilayo-Ransome-Kuti</ref>. Her papa be Chief Daniel Olumeyuwa Thomas (1869–1954), from one big family called Jibolu-Taiwo. Her mama be Lucretia Phyllis Omoyeni Adeosolu (1874–1956). Her papa dey farm and sell palm produce, while her mama work as a seamstress (dressmaker)'''.'''<ref name=":0">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Funmilayo-Ransome-Kuti</ref> Frances her papa, Daniel, be pikin of Ebenezer Sobowale Thomas, wey dem born for Freetown''',''' Sierra Leone, and Abigail Fakemi, wey come from Ilesa, one Yoruba town. Di oldest ancestor wey people know from her papa side be her great-grandma, Sarah Taiwo (Ebenezer him mama). Sarah be Yoruba woman wey slave traders capture for early 1800s, but later she return back home to her family for Abeokuta. Sarah first marry Sobowale Thomas, and later marry two more men. Di children and grandchildren wey come from Sarah and all her husbands – including di Jibolu-Taiwo family – be among di first Christians for that area. Dem help spread Christianity strong strong for Abeokuta. Frances her mama be pikin of Isaac Adeosolu, wey come from Abeokuta, and Harriet, wey be daughter of Adeboye from Ile-Ife, one old Yoruba town. Her mama and papa marry for 1897, but di first two children wey dem born die as babies before Frances come enter this world.<ref name="Cheryl" /> 19–23  Even though e no common that time say Nigerian people go spend money make girls go school, Frances her mama and papa believe say education dey important for both boys and girls<ref name="Cheryl" />. She go Abeokuta Grammar School for secondary school<ref name=":0" />. Di school first be only for boys, but for 1914, dem start dey take girls, and Frances be di first among six girls wey register that year.<ref name="Cheryl" /> From 1919 to 1922, she go Wincham Hall School for Girls for Cheshire, England<ref>https://archive.org/details/olufunmilayo-ransome-kuti/</ref>. For there she learn elocution (how to talk well)''',''' music, how to sew cloth (dressmaking), French language, and housework skills. Na for there too she decide say she no go use “Frances” again, but go dey use her short Yoruba name – Funmilayo'''.'''<ref name="Cheryl" /> Dem say e be like say na because of racism she face while she dey that school.<ref>https://archive.org/details/expandingboundar0000john/page/144</ref> After school, she return Abeokuta come work as teacher.<ref name="lioness-lisabi" /> On 20 January 1925, Funmilayo marry Reverend Israel Oludotun Ransome-Kuti''',''' wey come from di famous Ransome-Kuti family. <ref name="Cheryl" /> Israel go Abeokuta Grammar School some years before Funmilayo, and as she still dey school, di two of dem become friends, later dem start courtship (love relationship).<ref name="Cheryl" /> Israel get work as school principal, and he believe say people from different tribes and areas for come together make dem stop all di division. He later help form Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT) and also Nigerian Union of Students.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Di marriage between Funmilayo and Israel last for 30 years, until Israel die. Dem marriage be one wey get equality and deep respect between husband and wife.<ref name="Cheryl" /> After she marry, Funmilayo Ransome-Kut'''i''' stop her teaching work, but she no stay idle. For 1928, she start one of di first preschool classes for Nigeria. Around dat same time, she create one club for young women from rich families, make dem learn how to improve themselves. She also organize classes for women wey no know read and write.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Between 1935 and 1936, she and her husband buy one secondhand car from England, and dem ship am come Nigeria. Funmilayo come become di first woman for Abeokuta wey drive motor.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Ransome-Kuti and her husband born four children: one girl wey dem name Dolupo (born 1926), and three boys – Olikoye "Koye" (1927), Olufela "Fela" (1938), and Bekololari "Beko" (1940). == '''Activism''' == === Abeokuta Women's Union === For 1932, Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti help start Abeokuta Ladies Club.<ref name="lioness-lisabi" /> At first, di club focus on charity work, sewing, catering, and adult education classes.<ref name=":0" /> Most of di early members be Christian women wey go Western school, and dem come from middle-class homes. But by 1940s, di club start dey go more into politics. One of her illiterate friends tell her say she wan learn how to read, so Funmilayo begin organize literacy workshops for market women through di club. Through this, she come understand better how many Nigerian women dey suffer from social and political unfairness.<ref name=":2">https://archive.org/details/expandingboundar0000john/page/144</ref> She write say even though she come from better background, the real life of Nigerian women be like those wey carry baby for back and dey farm from morning reach evening, no be the ones wey chop tea, sugar, and flour for morning.<ref>http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1ddr6f8 </ref> For 1944, she lead one successful campaign wey stop local authorities from seizing rice from market women with lies.<ref name=":3">https://archive.org/details/internationalenc0000hann/page/251</ref> For 1946, dem officially change di club name to Abeokuta Women’s Union (AWU), and now e open to all women for Abeokuta. Di union begin fight against bad price controls and taxes wey dem dey impose on market women. Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti be di president of di AWU.<ref name=":1" /> She form di union with Grace Eniola Soyinka<ref>http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/africanjournals/pdfs/glendora%20review/vol2no2/graa002002007.pdf</ref> wey be her husband ein niece and Mama of Nobel Prize winner Wole Soyinka.<ref>http://www.jstor.org/stable/160896</ref> Di AWU come grow big, get 20,000 registered members and almost 100,000 more supporters.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=HwqQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA282</ref> To make all women feel united and avoid class wahala, Funmilayo and di other women wey go school begin speak Yoruba and wear traditional Yoruba cloth for meetings and union events.<ref name=":0" /> Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti her first big political move happen when she lead Abeokuta Women’s Union (AWU) protest against tax wey dem put on women. For Abeokuta that time, apart from normal tax like income tax and water bill, market women still get one special tax wey dem dey pay straight to market supervisors, wey dem dey call “parakoyi”.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Alake Ademola II, wey be di traditional ruler for Abeokuta, come join di colonial government through indirect rule. Na im start this women tax after dem set up Egba Native Administration for 1914.<ref name=":0" /> When Funmilayo and AWU try beg di British authorities make dem remove di Alake and cancel di tax but e no work, dem begin write to newspapers and share petitions everywhere.<ref name=":0" /> To put more pressure, AWU women refuse to pay di tax, hold long vigil for front of di Alake ein palace, and even check di financial records of di Sole Native Authority (SNA). Dem no only wan stop di tax, but also demand say women too for get voice for di SNA executive council.<ref name=":2" /> By late 1947, Abeokuta authorities start to stop women from doing parades or demonstrations, say dem no go give permit again. But Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and her people no give up. Dem come talk say dem dey plan “picnics” and “festivals” instead — wey really be protest — and dis draw like 10,000 women come join. Some of di protest even turn gbege with police.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Funmilayo train di women how to handle tear gas canisters wey police dey throw. Di AWU use membership dues to pay lawyers for women wey dem arrest<ref name="Cheryl" />. One time, British district officer shout say make she keep her women quiet, but Funmilayo fire am back: “Dem born you, but you no get home training! You go talk to your mama like that?” Di West African Pilot newspaper call her “Lioness of Lisabi”, true true warrior woman!<ref name="Cheryl" /> Tension between AWU women and di authorities reach boiling point for February 1948, when di Alake talk say AWU women be vipers wey nobody fit tame, and he come ban Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti from entering di palace for political matters. Right after dat, AWU women vex, dem block di palace gate, no allow di British district officer wey come visit to comot. Di thing turn gbege when Funmilayo hold di steering whee'''l''' of di district officer ein car and no gree let go, until di man force her hand comot.<ref name="Cheryl" /> People come start support di women strong. Early 1948, AWU still dey fight di tax with petitions, press conferences, newspaper letters, plus more demonstrations.By late April 1948, after plenty pressure, di Alake finally hear, he '''c'''ancel di women tax and set up one committee to check all di AWU complaints<ref name="Cheryl" />. For early 1949, all di hard work of AWU make di Alake step down small (abdicate temporary).<ref name=":0" /> Di thing shock everybody as newspapers across Nigeria report am. From dat time, Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and her AWU women become popular everywhere.<ref name=":2" /> == National work == For 1947, di National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) send delegation go London to protest one constitution wey di British people wan bring for Nigeria. Funmilayo Ransome-Kut'''i''' be di only woman wey join di trip.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=7Q8Ix-M8LWcC&pg=PA53</ref><ref name=":2" /> While she dey London, she talk for big-big places like di London Women’s Parliamentary Committee, National Federation of Women’s Institutes, and other groups, where she raise voice for Nigerian women matter. She also cause wahala small when she write one article for Daily Worker newspaper, talk say colonial rule don sideline Nigerian Daily Worker newspaper bad, both for politics and for economy.<ref name=":2" /> Later for 1949, one Western Provinces conference happen for Nigeria to talk new constitution. Ransome-Kuti represent Abeokuta, and again, she be di only woman for the whole meeting. She no keep quiet, she talk bold say women must get voting rights, and she fight against the plan to use one indirect voting system.<ref name="Cheryl" /> For May 1949, Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti talk say make dem form Nigerian Women’s Union (NWU) so women rights go get stronger voice across di whole country. Her AWU people support am, and di AWU now turn Abeokuta branch of NWU<ref name="Cheryl" />. After dat, she begin waka all over Nigeria to help start NWU branches for different towns and cities. She be presido for both NWU and her hometown union for Abeokuta. NWU dey fight for, make women get right to vote (suffrage), make dem cancel electoral college system, ake women get more chance for government matter<ref name="Cheryl" /> She be one of di people wey start NCNC party, and for 1951, she contest for regional assembly under NCNC, but she no win. <ref name=":1" /> One reason be say special tax rule block many of her supporters – especially women – from voting.<ref name=":0" /> She later become NCNC Western Working Committee treasurer, and then President of di NCNC Women’s Organization for di Western Region.<ref name=":4">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59221-209-3</ref> For 1953, she organize one conference for Abeokuta wey discuss women matter for voting and politics. 400 women delegates come for di two-day event. Na from dis conference dem create Federation of Nigerian Women’s Societies (FNWS).<ref name=":3" /> Di FNWS fight for, make women enter politics well, better school opportunities, more social services and health care<ref name=":0" /> Early 1950s, Ransome-Kuti get appointment into di Western House of Chiefs<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funmilayo_Ransome-Kuti#cite_note-16</ref>. she be di first woman to enter de western house<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funmilayo_Ransome-Kuti#cite_note-18</ref> and one of di very few women wey hold any chief title for Nigeria dat time. Dem also give her chieftaincy title<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funmilayo_Ransome-Kuti#cite_note-17</ref> , Oloye of Yoruba people, and she join di board for Nigerian Union of Teachers.<ref name=":0" /> == Travel bans and independence == For 6 April 1955, Israel Ransome-Kuti, Funmilayo ein husband, die from prostate cancer after he sick for long time. The death pain Funmilayo well-well, as she dey already think whether she for stop politics small make she stay home with am.<ref name="Cheryl" /> After her husband die, she still continue her political waka, but she also start invest money and time to build new schools for Abeokuta – education and literacy. wey she and her husband both believe in.<ref name="Cheryl" /> She travel go many countries. For Africa, she build strong friendship with women groups for places like Algeria, Egypt, and Ghana. <ref name=":2" /> She also go England, China, Soviet Union, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland.<ref name=":4" /> When she go China for 1956, she talk give public lectures about Nigerian women and culture,<ref name=":0" /> and even meet Mao Zedong. She believe in socialist ideas <ref name=":2" /> and call herself African Socialist<ref name=":0" />. She no say she be communist, but she no fear communism too.<ref name="Cheryl" /> Because she go China with money from one group wey dem call Women’s International Democratic Federation (WIDF), British people begin suspect say she dey promote communist ideas. For that reason, dem no gree renew her passport for the next year.<ref name=":2" /> Then for 1958, when America invite her come one women’s rights conference, dem no gree give her visa because dem say she get too many communist links<ref name=":4" />. Even though she get plenty big people support, write plenty protest letters, and even do press conference to talk say she no be communist, government no mind am.. Na until Nigeria get independence for 1960 before dem renew her passport.<ref name=":2" /> 6qzil8tjdnhenn2xjc19s5z3gf9bxau 0 17238 63780 63087 2025-06-17T07:25:39Z DaSupremo 9 Add databox 63780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Shehu '''Usman dan Fodio''' pronunciationⓘ (Arabic: عثمان بن فودي, romanized: ʿUthmān ibn Fūdī; full name; 15 December 1754 – 20 April 1817). (Uthman ibn Muhammad ibn Uthman ibn Saalih ibn Haarun ibn Muhammad Ghurdu ibn Muhammad Jubba ibn Muhammad Sambo ibn Maysiran ibn Ayyub ibn Buba Baba ibn Musa Jokolli ibn Imam Dembube`)<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Last|first=Murray|url=https://www.internationalafricaninstitute.org/downloads/genealogies.pdf|title=Genealogy of Shaikh Uthman b Fodiye and some Scholars related to him|publisher=Premium Times}}</ref> na he be [[Fula people|Fulani]] scholar, [[Islam|Islamic]] religious teacher, poet, revolutionary den philosopher wey found de Sokoto Caliphate den he cam rule as dema first caliph. After dema successful revolution, de "Jama'a" con giv am de title Amir al-Mu'minin (commander of de faithful). He con reject de throne den continue ein calling to Islam. Born in Gobir, Usman com be descendant of de Torodbe clans of urbanized ethnic [[Fula people|Fulani people]] wey dey live in de Hausa Kingdoms since de early 1400s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=T. A. Osae & S. N. Nwabara|title=a Short history of WEST AFRICA A.D 1000–1800|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|year=1968|isbn=0-340-07771-9|location=Great Britain|pages=80}}</ref> For in early life, Usman be well educated for Islamic studies den, wey he began dey preach Sunni Islam throughout territories wey later com be parts of independent [[Nigeria]] den [[Cameroon]]. He con write more than a hundred books wey concern religion, government, culture den society. He con develop a critique for existing African Muslim elites for wetin he com see as their greed, paganism, violation of de standards of de Sharia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Karanta Cikakken Tarihin Shehu Usman Dan Fodio : Abubuwan da Yakamata Ku sani dangane da Rayuwar Mujaddadi Shehu Usman Dan Fodio|url=https://www.muryarhausa24.com.ng/2017/12/dan-girman-allah-karanta-wannan-tarihin.html|access-date=19 January 2023|language=english}}</ref> Usman con form an Islamic religious den social revolution wey spread from Gobir throughout modern [[Nigeria]] den [[Cameroon]]. Dis revolution com influence other rebellions across [[West Africa]] den beyond. For 1803, he com found de Sokoto Caliphate den his followers pledge allegiance to am as de Commander of the Faithful (Amīr al-Muʾminīn). Usman den com declare jihad against de Hausa kings den defeat dem. Under Usman's leadership, de caliphate con expand into present-day [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cameroon]], [[Niger|Southern Niger]] den most of de [[Nigeria|Northern Nigeria]]. Ɗan Fodio con decline much of de pomp of rulership, den while he dey develop contacts with religious reformists den jihad leaders across Africa, he soon con pass actual leadership of de Sokoto state to ein son, Muhammed Bello.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 March 2016|title=Usman Dan Fodio's Biography|url=https://burubali.wordpress.com/usman-dan-fodios-biography/|access-date=26 May 2020|website=Fulbe History and Heritage|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Beek|first=W.E.A.van|url=https://ascleiden.nl/publications/purity-and-statecraft-fulani-jihad-and-its-empire|title=The Quest for Purity|date=1988|publisher=Mouton|location=Berlin}}</ref> He encouraged literacy den scholarship, for women den men, den several of ein daughters con emerge as scholars den writers. Ein writings den sayings con be much quoted today, wey dem dey affectionately refer to am as '''Shehu''' for Nigeria. Some followers con dey consider ɗan Fodio as a mujaddid, a divinely sent "reformer of Islam". Shehu dan Fodio's uprising con be a major episode of a movement wey dem dey describe as de jihad in de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Suret-Canale, Jean. "The Social and Historical Significance of the Fulɓe Hegemonies in the Seventeenth, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries." In ''Essays on African History: From the Slave Trade to Neocolonialism.'' translated from the French by Christopher Hurst. C. Hurst & Co., London., pp. 25–55|url=http://www.webpulaaku.net/defte/jsuretcanale/hist_essays/shsph_171819.html|access-date=8 October 2014}}</ref> E follow de jihads successfully waged for Futa Bundu, Futa Tooro and Fouta Djallon between 1650 den 1750, wey con lead to de creation of those three Islamic states. For ein turn, de Shehu con inspire a number of later West African jihads, wey include those of Seku Amadu, founder of de Massina Empire den Omar Saidou Tall, founder of de Toucouleur Empire, who married one of ɗan Fodio's granddaughters. == Early life == === Lineage den childhood === Usman Danfodio belongs to de generation of wandering scholars who con start settling for Hausaland since de 1300-1400s, some 400–500 years before de Jihad <ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Last|first=Murray|title=The Sokoto Caliphate|url=https://www.academia.edu/100223812}}</ref> De Sheikh's ancestors were Toronkawa who migrated from Futa Tooro in de 1300s under de leadership of [[Musa Jokollo]]. Musa Jokollo be de 11th grandfather of de Shehu. Na there were 11 generations between Musa Jokollo den Shehu Danfodio. Abdullahi dan Fodio con state that de Torankawa (Turubbi/Torobe) have Arab ancestry through one Uqba who marry a Fulani woman called Bajjumangbu. Muhammed Bello was not sure if it was Uqba ibn Nafi, Uqba ibn Yasir or Uqba ibn Amir.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abubakar|first=Aliyu|title=The Torankawa Danfodio Family|publisher=Fero Publishers|year=2005|location=Kano, Nigeria}}</ref> Usman dan Fodio's ein mother Hauwa, dem believe say she be direct descendant of [[Muhammad]] as she con descend from Maulay Idris I, de first Emir of Morocco, who was de great-grandchild of Hasan, grandson of Muhammad.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Last|first=Murray|url=https://www.internationalafricaninstitute.org/downloads/genealogies.pdf|title=Genealogy of Shaikh Uthman b Fodiye and some Scholars related to him|publisher=Premium Times}}</ref> Ahmadu Bello, de first Premier of Northern Nigeria and great-grandson of Muhammed Bello, also said this insyde ein autobiography, tracing ein family's connection to Muhammad through Hauwa and Muhammad Fodio.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bello|first=Ahmadu|url=http://archive.org/details/mylifebell00bell|title=My life|date=1962|publisher=Cambridge [Eng.] : University Press|others=Internet Archive|pages=239}}</ref> De Toronkawa first settle insyde a village dem dey call Konni on de borders of Bornu Empire den Songhai Empire, till persecution con drive them go [[Maratta town|Maratta]] under de leadership of Muhammad Sa'ad, de Sheikh's great-grandfather. Some faction of them con split den move go Qoloba. Na it was insyde Maratta dat Usman Danfodio was born on 15 December 1754. Dem born am as bi Fodiye, dan Fodio or Ibn Fudiyi, 'the son of Fodiye', ein father don earn de Fulani title of Fodiye 'de learned'. A further move by de sheikh's father, [[Muhammad Bn Fodio]] after 1754 brought dem from Maratta to Degel, but several of dema relatives still dey stay in de town of Konni. Other Toronkawa, such as Gidado's family con move to Kebbi.<ref name=":3" /> 3weu41yuzeovsk1akio0i2z8915u0em 0 17241 63730 63051 2025-06-17T05:52:33Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 63730 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. == References == osjikbz66jrw25vsxn58az3qhyxixdg 63731 63730 2025-06-17T06:00:42Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63731 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. == References == bktovldy6vfr9jj0j7d49uwj8aat9px 63732 63731 2025-06-17T06:07:09Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63732 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. == References == ghv6iie8h5qsbf1u6x2m94qyop5hrlp 63733 63732 2025-06-17T06:09:19Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63733 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. == References == ewak36r621xthxhcrsnrt6cavri6m5l 63735 63733 2025-06-17T06:15:13Z DaSupremo 9 /* Early life */ Improve article 63735 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission. == References == 3ordisei1ipuoxhm41ilxz9eknbgx2f 63736 63735 2025-06-17T06:21:31Z DaSupremo 9 /* Kiddie time: 1924–1945 */ Improve article 63736 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na Bona den Gabriel get six kiddies: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, den Bridgette.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17.</ref> Na dem belong to de Zezuru clan, one of de smallest branches of de Shona tribe.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 26.</ref> Na Mugabe ein paternal grandpoppie be Chief Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure wey serve King Lobengula insyd de 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2017|title=Mugabe's grandfather served King Lobengula|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107223825/http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|archive-date=7 November 2017|publisher=Bulawayo}}</ref> Thru ein poppie, na he claim membership of de chieftaincy family wey na provide de hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2015|title=President At 91: How President Mugabe Became My Father|url=https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/president-at-91-how-president-mugabe-became-my-father|access-date=18 February 2020|institution=The Sunday Mail}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == fokmdsa5gt98peub0uhk14yxpz7eakh 63738 63736 2025-06-17T06:30:49Z DaSupremo 9 /* Post-presidency */ Improve article 63738 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na Bona den Gabriel get six kiddies: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, den Bridgette.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17.</ref> Na dem belong to de Zezuru clan, one of de smallest branches of de Shona tribe.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 26.</ref> Na Mugabe ein paternal grandpoppie be Chief Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure wey serve King Lobengula insyd de 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2017|title=Mugabe's grandfather served King Lobengula|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107223825/http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|archive-date=7 November 2017|publisher=Bulawayo}}</ref> Thru ein poppie, na he claim membership of de chieftaincy family wey na provide de hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2015|title=President At 91: How President Mugabe Became My Father|url=https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/president-at-91-how-president-mugabe-became-my-father|access-date=18 February 2020|institution=The Sunday Mail}}</ref> ==Post-presidency== ===Illness, death den funeral: 2019=== Na Mugabe no fi walk, according to Emmerson Mnangagwa insyd November 2018, wey na he dey receive treatment insyd [[Singapore]] for de previous two months.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46329242 | title= Ex-Zimbabwe President Mugabe 'unable to walk' | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 24 November 2018 }}</ref> Na dem hospitalise am der insyd April 2019, wey dey make de last of chaw trips to de country for medical treatment, as na he do late insyd ein presidency den dey follow ein resignation.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152 | title= Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burke |first1=Jason |last2=Smith |first2=David |date=6 September 2019 |title=Robert Mugabe: former Zimbabwean president dies aged 95 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906054505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2019 |title=Zimbabwe's former president Robert Mugabe dies in Singapore |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |work=Reuters |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906053440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Na he die at Gleneagles Hospital on 6 September 2019 at about 10:40&nbsp;am, aged 95 (Singapore Standard Time), according to a senior Zimbabwean diplomat.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.straitstimes.com/world/africa/ex-zimbabwe-leader-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95-bbc | title= Ex-Zimbabwe leader Robert Mugabe dies at 95 in Singapore | website = The Straits Times | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref> Although na dem no officially disclose ein cause of death,<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-mugabe-has-died-zimbabwes-founding-father-turned-strongman-dies-at-95-cause-of-death-unknown-2019-09-06/|title=Robert Mugabe has died; Zimbabwe's founding father turned strongman dies at 95 cause of death unknown|date=6 September 2019|publisher=CBS News|access-date=6 September 2019}}</ref> na Mnangagwa, ein successor, tell ZANU–PF supporters insyd New York City dat na Mugabe get advanced cancer wey na ein chemotherapy treatment cease to be effective.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mnangagwa Reveals Mugabe was Being Treated for Cancer Before his Death |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death |website=Eyewitness News |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Former President Mugabe cause of death revealed |url=https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/ |website=The Herald |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == bmtah1kxwma6dfqlqjuckov26nj13nw 63739 63738 2025-06-17T06:35:08Z DaSupremo 9 /* Illness, death den funeral: 2019 */ Improve article 63739 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na Bona den Gabriel get six kiddies: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, den Bridgette.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17.</ref> Na dem belong to de Zezuru clan, one of de smallest branches of de Shona tribe.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 26.</ref> Na Mugabe ein paternal grandpoppie be Chief Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure wey serve King Lobengula insyd de 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2017|title=Mugabe's grandfather served King Lobengula|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107223825/http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|archive-date=7 November 2017|publisher=Bulawayo}}</ref> Thru ein poppie, na he claim membership of de chieftaincy family wey na provide de hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2015|title=President At 91: How President Mugabe Became My Father|url=https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/president-at-91-how-president-mugabe-became-my-father|access-date=18 February 2020|institution=The Sunday Mail}}</ref> ==Post-presidency== ===Illness, death den funeral: 2019=== Na Mugabe no fi walk, according to Emmerson Mnangagwa insyd November 2018, wey na he dey receive treatment insyd [[Singapore]] for de previous two months.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46329242 | title= Ex-Zimbabwe President Mugabe 'unable to walk' | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 24 November 2018 }}</ref> Na dem hospitalise am der insyd April 2019, wey dey make de last of chaw trips to de country for medical treatment, as na he do late insyd ein presidency den dey follow ein resignation.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152 | title= Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burke |first1=Jason |last2=Smith |first2=David |date=6 September 2019 |title=Robert Mugabe: former Zimbabwean president dies aged 95 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906054505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2019 |title=Zimbabwe's former president Robert Mugabe dies in Singapore |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |work=Reuters |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906053440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Na he die at Gleneagles Hospital on 6 September 2019 at about 10:40&nbsp;am, aged 95 (Singapore Standard Time), according to a senior Zimbabwean diplomat.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.straitstimes.com/world/africa/ex-zimbabwe-leader-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95-bbc | title= Ex-Zimbabwe leader Robert Mugabe dies at 95 in Singapore | website = The Straits Times | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref> Although na dem no officially disclose ein cause of death,<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-mugabe-has-died-zimbabwes-founding-father-turned-strongman-dies-at-95-cause-of-death-unknown-2019-09-06/|title=Robert Mugabe has died; Zimbabwe's founding father turned strongman dies at 95 cause of death unknown|date=6 September 2019|publisher=CBS News|access-date=6 September 2019}}</ref> na Mnangagwa, ein successor, tell ZANU–PF supporters insyd New York City dat na Mugabe get advanced cancer wey na ein chemotherapy treatment cease to be effective.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mnangagwa Reveals Mugabe was Being Treated for Cancer Before his Death |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death |website=Eyewitness News |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Former President Mugabe cause of death revealed |url=https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/ |website=The Herald |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref> On 14 September 2019, na dem hold Mugabe ein state funeral,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/15/pomp-thin-crowds-mixed-feelings-as-robert-mugabe-laid-to-rest|title=Pomp, thin crowds and mixed feelings as Robert Mugabe is buried|first=Jason|last=Burke|work=The Guardian|date=15 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.premier.org.uk/News/World/The-end-does-not-justify-the-means-say-Zimbabwean-bishops-as-Mugabe-s-funeral-takes-place|title='The end does not justify the means' say Zimbabwean bishops as Mugabe's funeral takes place|first=Cara|last=Bentley|publisher=Premier Christian Radio|date=14 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> wich na dem open to de public, at de National Sports Stadium, plus an aerial photo wey dey show de 60,000 capacity stadium to be about a quarter full.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49686131|title=Mugabe funeral: Leader's body kept in hometown after state funeral|work=BBC News|date=14 September 2019|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> Na leaders den former leaders of various African countries attend de funeral, among dem be Mnangagwa, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, [[Sam Nujoma]], Hifikepunye Pohamba den Hage Geingob of [[Namibia]], Joseph Kabila of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], Uhuru Kenyatta of [[Kenya]] den Cyril Ramaphosa of South Africa.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral" /> == References == <references /> == External links == fv98p1eepw7grygko41wtwtw1zxyrr1 63740 63739 2025-06-17T06:37:17Z DaSupremo 9 /* Illness, death den funeral: 2019 */ Improve article 63740 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na Bona den Gabriel get six kiddies: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, den Bridgette.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17.</ref> Na dem belong to de Zezuru clan, one of de smallest branches of de Shona tribe.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 26.</ref> Na Mugabe ein paternal grandpoppie be Chief Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure wey serve King Lobengula insyd de 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2017|title=Mugabe's grandfather served King Lobengula|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107223825/http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|archive-date=7 November 2017|publisher=Bulawayo}}</ref> Thru ein poppie, na he claim membership of de chieftaincy family wey na provide de hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2015|title=President At 91: How President Mugabe Became My Father|url=https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/president-at-91-how-president-mugabe-became-my-father|access-date=18 February 2020|institution=The Sunday Mail}}</ref> ==Post-presidency== ===Illness, death den funeral: 2019=== Na Mugabe no fi walk, according to Emmerson Mnangagwa insyd November 2018, wey na he dey receive treatment insyd [[Singapore]] for de previous two months.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46329242 | title= Ex-Zimbabwe President Mugabe 'unable to walk' | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 24 November 2018 }}</ref> Na dem hospitalise am der insyd April 2019, wey dey make de last of chaw trips to de country for medical treatment, as na he do late insyd ein presidency den dey follow ein resignation.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152 | title= Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burke |first1=Jason |last2=Smith |first2=David |date=6 September 2019 |title=Robert Mugabe: former Zimbabwean president dies aged 95 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906054505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2019 |title=Zimbabwe's former president Robert Mugabe dies in Singapore |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |work=Reuters |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906053440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Na he die at Gleneagles Hospital on 6 September 2019 at about 10:40&nbsp;am, aged 95 (Singapore Standard Time), according to a senior Zimbabwean diplomat.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.straitstimes.com/world/africa/ex-zimbabwe-leader-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95-bbc | title= Ex-Zimbabwe leader Robert Mugabe dies at 95 in Singapore | website = The Straits Times | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref> Although na dem no officially disclose ein cause of death,<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-mugabe-has-died-zimbabwes-founding-father-turned-strongman-dies-at-95-cause-of-death-unknown-2019-09-06/|title=Robert Mugabe has died; Zimbabwe's founding father turned strongman dies at 95 cause of death unknown|date=6 September 2019|publisher=CBS News|access-date=6 September 2019}}</ref> na Mnangagwa, ein successor, tell ZANU–PF supporters insyd New York City dat na Mugabe get advanced cancer wey na ein chemotherapy treatment cease to be effective.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mnangagwa Reveals Mugabe was Being Treated for Cancer Before his Death |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death |website=Eyewitness News |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Former President Mugabe cause of death revealed |url=https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/ |website=The Herald |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref> On 14 September 2019, na dem hold Mugabe ein state funeral,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/15/pomp-thin-crowds-mixed-feelings-as-robert-mugabe-laid-to-rest|title=Pomp, thin crowds and mixed feelings as Robert Mugabe is buried|first=Jason|last=Burke|work=The Guardian|date=15 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.premier.org.uk/News/World/The-end-does-not-justify-the-means-say-Zimbabwean-bishops-as-Mugabe-s-funeral-takes-place|title='The end does not justify the means' say Zimbabwean bishops as Mugabe's funeral takes place|first=Cara|last=Bentley|publisher=Premier Christian Radio|date=14 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> wich na dem open to de public, at de National Sports Stadium, plus an aerial photo wey dey show de 60,000 capacity stadium to be about a quarter full.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49686131|title=Mugabe funeral: Leader's body kept in hometown after state funeral|work=BBC News|date=14 September 2019|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> Na leaders den former leaders of various African countries attend de funeral, among dem be Mnangagwa, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, [[Sam Nujoma]], Hifikepunye Pohamba den Hage Geingob of [[Namibia]], Joseph Kabila of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], Uhuru Kenyatta of [[Kenya]] den Cyril Ramaphosa of South Africa.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral" /> On 26 September 2019, na Nick Mangwana state dat dem go bury Mugabe insyd ein home town of Kutama "to respect de wishes of families of deceased heroes".<ref>{{cite news|title=Mugabe to be buried in home town after final twist in row|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49846340|access-date=26 September 2019|work=BBC News|date=26 September 2019}}</ref> Na de burial take place insyd de courtyard of ein home insyd Kutama on 28 September 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49865776|title=Mugabe funeral: Zimbabwe ex-president laid to rest in Kutama|publisher=BBC News|date=28 September 2024|accessdate=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Chingono|first1=Mark|last2=Adebayo|first2=Bukola|date=28 September 2019|title=Zimbabwe's former President Robert Mugabe buried in his hometown|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/28/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe-buried-intl/index.html?no-st=1569797972|url-status=live|access-date=30 September 2019|work=CNN}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == bqxzdhpj7ypy39p9njf2rnfd4hkbi8n 63742 63740 2025-06-17T06:42:49Z DaSupremo 9 /* Bibliography */ Improve article 63742 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na Bona den Gabriel get six kiddies: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, den Bridgette.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17.</ref> Na dem belong to de Zezuru clan, one of de smallest branches of de Shona tribe.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 26.</ref> Na Mugabe ein paternal grandpoppie be Chief Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure wey serve King Lobengula insyd de 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2017|title=Mugabe's grandfather served King Lobengula|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107223825/http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|archive-date=7 November 2017|publisher=Bulawayo}}</ref> Thru ein poppie, na he claim membership of de chieftaincy family wey na provide de hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2015|title=President At 91: How President Mugabe Became My Father|url=https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/president-at-91-how-president-mugabe-became-my-father|access-date=18 February 2020|institution=The Sunday Mail}}</ref> ==Post-presidency== ===Illness, death den funeral: 2019=== Na Mugabe no fi walk, according to Emmerson Mnangagwa insyd November 2018, wey na he dey receive treatment insyd [[Singapore]] for de previous two months.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46329242 | title= Ex-Zimbabwe President Mugabe 'unable to walk' | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 24 November 2018 }}</ref> Na dem hospitalise am der insyd April 2019, wey dey make de last of chaw trips to de country for medical treatment, as na he do late insyd ein presidency den dey follow ein resignation.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152 | title= Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burke |first1=Jason |last2=Smith |first2=David |date=6 September 2019 |title=Robert Mugabe: former Zimbabwean president dies aged 95 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906054505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2019 |title=Zimbabwe's former president Robert Mugabe dies in Singapore |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |work=Reuters |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906053440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Na he die at Gleneagles Hospital on 6 September 2019 at about 10:40&nbsp;am, aged 95 (Singapore Standard Time), according to a senior Zimbabwean diplomat.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.straitstimes.com/world/africa/ex-zimbabwe-leader-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95-bbc | title= Ex-Zimbabwe leader Robert Mugabe dies at 95 in Singapore | website = The Straits Times | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref> Although na dem no officially disclose ein cause of death,<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-mugabe-has-died-zimbabwes-founding-father-turned-strongman-dies-at-95-cause-of-death-unknown-2019-09-06/|title=Robert Mugabe has died; Zimbabwe's founding father turned strongman dies at 95 cause of death unknown|date=6 September 2019|publisher=CBS News|access-date=6 September 2019}}</ref> na Mnangagwa, ein successor, tell ZANU–PF supporters insyd New York City dat na Mugabe get advanced cancer wey na ein chemotherapy treatment cease to be effective.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mnangagwa Reveals Mugabe was Being Treated for Cancer Before his Death |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death |website=Eyewitness News |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Former President Mugabe cause of death revealed |url=https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/ |website=The Herald |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref> On 14 September 2019, na dem hold Mugabe ein state funeral,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/15/pomp-thin-crowds-mixed-feelings-as-robert-mugabe-laid-to-rest|title=Pomp, thin crowds and mixed feelings as Robert Mugabe is buried|first=Jason|last=Burke|work=The Guardian|date=15 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.premier.org.uk/News/World/The-end-does-not-justify-the-means-say-Zimbabwean-bishops-as-Mugabe-s-funeral-takes-place|title='The end does not justify the means' say Zimbabwean bishops as Mugabe's funeral takes place|first=Cara|last=Bentley|publisher=Premier Christian Radio|date=14 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> wich na dem open to de public, at de National Sports Stadium, plus an aerial photo wey dey show de 60,000 capacity stadium to be about a quarter full.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49686131|title=Mugabe funeral: Leader's body kept in hometown after state funeral|work=BBC News|date=14 September 2019|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> Na leaders den former leaders of various African countries attend de funeral, among dem be Mnangagwa, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, [[Sam Nujoma]], Hifikepunye Pohamba den Hage Geingob of [[Namibia]], Joseph Kabila of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], Uhuru Kenyatta of [[Kenya]] den Cyril Ramaphosa of South Africa.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral" /> On 26 September 2019, na Nick Mangwana state dat dem go bury Mugabe insyd ein home town of Kutama "to respect de wishes of families of deceased heroes".<ref>{{cite news|title=Mugabe to be buried in home town after final twist in row|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49846340|access-date=26 September 2019|work=BBC News|date=26 September 2019}}</ref> Na de burial take place insyd de courtyard of ein home insyd Kutama on 28 September 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49865776|title=Mugabe funeral: Zimbabwe ex-president laid to rest in Kutama|publisher=BBC News|date=28 September 2024|accessdate=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Chingono|first1=Mark|last2=Adebayo|first2=Bukola|date=28 September 2019|title=Zimbabwe's former President Robert Mugabe buried in his hometown|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/28/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe-buried-intl/index.html?no-st=1569797972|url-status=live|access-date=30 September 2019|work=CNN}}</ref> == References == <references /> ===Bibliography=== * {{cite book |last=Alao |first=Abiodun |year=2012 |title=Mugabe and the Politics of Security in Zimbabwe |location=Montreal and Kingston |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-4044-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Blair |first=David |year=2002 |title=Degrees in Violence: Robert Mugabe and the Struggle for Power in Zimbabwe |location=London and New York |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-5974-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/degreesinviolenc0000blai }} * {{cite journal |last1=Chigora |first1=Percyslage |last2=Guzura |first2=Tobias |title=The Politics of the Government of National Unity (GNU) and Power Sharing in Zimbabwe: Challenges and Prospects for Democracy |journal=African Journal of History and Culture |volume=3 |number=2 |pages=20–26 |year=2011 }} * {{cite journal |last=Gallagher |first=Julia |title=The Battle for Zimbabwe in 2013: From Polarisation to Ambivalence |journal=Journal of Modern African Studies |year=2015 |volume=53 |number=1 |pages=27–49 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X14000640 |s2cid=154398977 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/26245/1/gallagher-the-battle-for-zimbabwe-in-2013.pdf |issn = 0022-278X}} * {{cite book |last=Holland |first=Heidi |year=2008 |title=Dinner with Mugabe: The Untold Story of a Freedom Fighter Who Became a Tyrant |location=London |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-104079-0 }} * {{cite journal |last=Howard-Hassmann |first=Rhoda E. |title=Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000–2009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=32 |number=4 |year=2010 |pages=898–920 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2010.0030 |s2cid=143046672 }} == External links == moajj1eyulyoh7y1g9k0s2pelfoz5x2 63743 63742 2025-06-17T06:44:30Z DaSupremo 9 /* Bibliography */ Improve article 63743 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na Bona den Gabriel get six kiddies: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, den Bridgette.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17.</ref> Na dem belong to de Zezuru clan, one of de smallest branches of de Shona tribe.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 26.</ref> Na Mugabe ein paternal grandpoppie be Chief Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure wey serve King Lobengula insyd de 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2017|title=Mugabe's grandfather served King Lobengula|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107223825/http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|archive-date=7 November 2017|publisher=Bulawayo}}</ref> Thru ein poppie, na he claim membership of de chieftaincy family wey na provide de hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2015|title=President At 91: How President Mugabe Became My Father|url=https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/president-at-91-how-president-mugabe-became-my-father|access-date=18 February 2020|institution=The Sunday Mail}}</ref> ==Post-presidency== ===Illness, death den funeral: 2019=== Na Mugabe no fi walk, according to Emmerson Mnangagwa insyd November 2018, wey na he dey receive treatment insyd [[Singapore]] for de previous two months.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46329242 | title= Ex-Zimbabwe President Mugabe 'unable to walk' | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 24 November 2018 }}</ref> Na dem hospitalise am der insyd April 2019, wey dey make de last of chaw trips to de country for medical treatment, as na he do late insyd ein presidency den dey follow ein resignation.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152 | title= Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burke |first1=Jason |last2=Smith |first2=David |date=6 September 2019 |title=Robert Mugabe: former Zimbabwean president dies aged 95 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906054505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2019 |title=Zimbabwe's former president Robert Mugabe dies in Singapore |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |work=Reuters |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906053440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Na he die at Gleneagles Hospital on 6 September 2019 at about 10:40&nbsp;am, aged 95 (Singapore Standard Time), according to a senior Zimbabwean diplomat.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.straitstimes.com/world/africa/ex-zimbabwe-leader-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95-bbc | title= Ex-Zimbabwe leader Robert Mugabe dies at 95 in Singapore | website = The Straits Times | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref> Although na dem no officially disclose ein cause of death,<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-mugabe-has-died-zimbabwes-founding-father-turned-strongman-dies-at-95-cause-of-death-unknown-2019-09-06/|title=Robert Mugabe has died; Zimbabwe's founding father turned strongman dies at 95 cause of death unknown|date=6 September 2019|publisher=CBS News|access-date=6 September 2019}}</ref> na Mnangagwa, ein successor, tell ZANU–PF supporters insyd New York City dat na Mugabe get advanced cancer wey na ein chemotherapy treatment cease to be effective.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mnangagwa Reveals Mugabe was Being Treated for Cancer Before his Death |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death |website=Eyewitness News |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Former President Mugabe cause of death revealed |url=https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/ |website=The Herald |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref> On 14 September 2019, na dem hold Mugabe ein state funeral,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/15/pomp-thin-crowds-mixed-feelings-as-robert-mugabe-laid-to-rest|title=Pomp, thin crowds and mixed feelings as Robert Mugabe is buried|first=Jason|last=Burke|work=The Guardian|date=15 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.premier.org.uk/News/World/The-end-does-not-justify-the-means-say-Zimbabwean-bishops-as-Mugabe-s-funeral-takes-place|title='The end does not justify the means' say Zimbabwean bishops as Mugabe's funeral takes place|first=Cara|last=Bentley|publisher=Premier Christian Radio|date=14 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> wich na dem open to de public, at de National Sports Stadium, plus an aerial photo wey dey show de 60,000 capacity stadium to be about a quarter full.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49686131|title=Mugabe funeral: Leader's body kept in hometown after state funeral|work=BBC News|date=14 September 2019|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> Na leaders den former leaders of various African countries attend de funeral, among dem be Mnangagwa, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, [[Sam Nujoma]], Hifikepunye Pohamba den Hage Geingob of [[Namibia]], Joseph Kabila of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], Uhuru Kenyatta of [[Kenya]] den Cyril Ramaphosa of South Africa.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral" /> On 26 September 2019, na Nick Mangwana state dat dem go bury Mugabe insyd ein home town of Kutama "to respect de wishes of families of deceased heroes".<ref>{{cite news|title=Mugabe to be buried in home town after final twist in row|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49846340|access-date=26 September 2019|work=BBC News|date=26 September 2019}}</ref> Na de burial take place insyd de courtyard of ein home insyd Kutama on 28 September 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49865776|title=Mugabe funeral: Zimbabwe ex-president laid to rest in Kutama|publisher=BBC News|date=28 September 2024|accessdate=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Chingono|first1=Mark|last2=Adebayo|first2=Bukola|date=28 September 2019|title=Zimbabwe's former President Robert Mugabe buried in his hometown|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/28/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe-buried-intl/index.html?no-st=1569797972|url-status=live|access-date=30 September 2019|work=CNN}}</ref> == References == <references /> ===Bibliography=== * {{cite book |last=Alao |first=Abiodun |year=2012 |title=Mugabe and the Politics of Security in Zimbabwe |location=Montreal and Kingston |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-4044-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Blair |first=David |year=2002 |title=Degrees in Violence: Robert Mugabe and the Struggle for Power in Zimbabwe |location=London and New York |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-5974-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/degreesinviolenc0000blai }} * {{cite journal |last1=Chigora |first1=Percyslage |last2=Guzura |first2=Tobias |title=The Politics of the Government of National Unity (GNU) and Power Sharing in Zimbabwe: Challenges and Prospects for Democracy |journal=African Journal of History and Culture |volume=3 |number=2 |pages=20–26 |year=2011 }} * {{cite journal |last=Gallagher |first=Julia |title=The Battle for Zimbabwe in 2013: From Polarisation to Ambivalence |journal=Journal of Modern African Studies |year=2015 |volume=53 |number=1 |pages=27–49 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X14000640 |s2cid=154398977 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/26245/1/gallagher-the-battle-for-zimbabwe-in-2013.pdf |issn = 0022-278X}} * {{cite book |last=Holland |first=Heidi |year=2008 |title=Dinner with Mugabe: The Untold Story of a Freedom Fighter Who Became a Tyrant |location=London |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-104079-0 }} * {{cite journal |last=Howard-Hassmann |first=Rhoda E. |title=Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000–2009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=32 |number=4 |year=2010 |pages=898–920 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2010.0030 |s2cid=143046672 }} * {{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=Our Votes, Our Guns: Robert Mugabe and the Tragedy of Zimbabwe|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2002|isbn=978-1-58648-186-5|location=New York}} * {{cite journal |last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first=Sabelo J. |year=2009 |title=Making Sense of Mugabeism in Local and Global Politics: 'So Blair, keep your England and let me keep my Zimbabwe' |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=30 |pages=1139–1158 |doi=10.1080/01436590903037424 |s2cid=143775424 |number=6}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|first=Sabelo J.|author-mask=|contribution=Introduction: Mugabeism and Entanglements of History, Politics, and Power in the Making of Zimbabwe|title=Mugabeism? History, Politics, and Power in Zimbabwe|editor=Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni|year=2015|pages=1–25|location=New York|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-54344-8}} * {{cite book|last=Norman|first=Andrew|title=Mugabe: Teacher, Revolutionary, Tyrant|publisher=The History Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-86227-491-4|location=Stroud}} == External links == gbu2qmqvkyi1g0euoy2lxttblo7rh89 63744 63743 2025-06-17T06:45:33Z DaSupremo 9 /* Bibliography */ Improve article 63744 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na Bona den Gabriel get six kiddies: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, den Bridgette.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17.</ref> Na dem belong to de Zezuru clan, one of de smallest branches of de Shona tribe.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 26.</ref> Na Mugabe ein paternal grandpoppie be Chief Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure wey serve King Lobengula insyd de 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2017|title=Mugabe's grandfather served King Lobengula|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107223825/http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|archive-date=7 November 2017|publisher=Bulawayo}}</ref> Thru ein poppie, na he claim membership of de chieftaincy family wey na provide de hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2015|title=President At 91: How President Mugabe Became My Father|url=https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/president-at-91-how-president-mugabe-became-my-father|access-date=18 February 2020|institution=The Sunday Mail}}</ref> ==Post-presidency== ===Illness, death den funeral: 2019=== Na Mugabe no fi walk, according to Emmerson Mnangagwa insyd November 2018, wey na he dey receive treatment insyd [[Singapore]] for de previous two months.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46329242 | title= Ex-Zimbabwe President Mugabe 'unable to walk' | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 24 November 2018 }}</ref> Na dem hospitalise am der insyd April 2019, wey dey make de last of chaw trips to de country for medical treatment, as na he do late insyd ein presidency den dey follow ein resignation.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152 | title= Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burke |first1=Jason |last2=Smith |first2=David |date=6 September 2019 |title=Robert Mugabe: former Zimbabwean president dies aged 95 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906054505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2019 |title=Zimbabwe's former president Robert Mugabe dies in Singapore |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |work=Reuters |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906053440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Na he die at Gleneagles Hospital on 6 September 2019 at about 10:40&nbsp;am, aged 95 (Singapore Standard Time), according to a senior Zimbabwean diplomat.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.straitstimes.com/world/africa/ex-zimbabwe-leader-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95-bbc | title= Ex-Zimbabwe leader Robert Mugabe dies at 95 in Singapore | website = The Straits Times | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref> Although na dem no officially disclose ein cause of death,<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-mugabe-has-died-zimbabwes-founding-father-turned-strongman-dies-at-95-cause-of-death-unknown-2019-09-06/|title=Robert Mugabe has died; Zimbabwe's founding father turned strongman dies at 95 cause of death unknown|date=6 September 2019|publisher=CBS News|access-date=6 September 2019}}</ref> na Mnangagwa, ein successor, tell ZANU–PF supporters insyd New York City dat na Mugabe get advanced cancer wey na ein chemotherapy treatment cease to be effective.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mnangagwa Reveals Mugabe was Being Treated for Cancer Before his Death |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death |website=Eyewitness News |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Former President Mugabe cause of death revealed |url=https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/ |website=The Herald |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref> On 14 September 2019, na dem hold Mugabe ein state funeral,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/15/pomp-thin-crowds-mixed-feelings-as-robert-mugabe-laid-to-rest|title=Pomp, thin crowds and mixed feelings as Robert Mugabe is buried|first=Jason|last=Burke|work=The Guardian|date=15 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.premier.org.uk/News/World/The-end-does-not-justify-the-means-say-Zimbabwean-bishops-as-Mugabe-s-funeral-takes-place|title='The end does not justify the means' say Zimbabwean bishops as Mugabe's funeral takes place|first=Cara|last=Bentley|publisher=Premier Christian Radio|date=14 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> wich na dem open to de public, at de National Sports Stadium, plus an aerial photo wey dey show de 60,000 capacity stadium to be about a quarter full.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49686131|title=Mugabe funeral: Leader's body kept in hometown after state funeral|work=BBC News|date=14 September 2019|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> Na leaders den former leaders of various African countries attend de funeral, among dem be Mnangagwa, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, [[Sam Nujoma]], Hifikepunye Pohamba den Hage Geingob of [[Namibia]], Joseph Kabila of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], Uhuru Kenyatta of [[Kenya]] den Cyril Ramaphosa of South Africa.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral" /> On 26 September 2019, na Nick Mangwana state dat dem go bury Mugabe insyd ein home town of Kutama "to respect de wishes of families of deceased heroes".<ref>{{cite news|title=Mugabe to be buried in home town after final twist in row|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49846340|access-date=26 September 2019|work=BBC News|date=26 September 2019}}</ref> Na de burial take place insyd de courtyard of ein home insyd Kutama on 28 September 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49865776|title=Mugabe funeral: Zimbabwe ex-president laid to rest in Kutama|publisher=BBC News|date=28 September 2024|accessdate=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Chingono|first1=Mark|last2=Adebayo|first2=Bukola|date=28 September 2019|title=Zimbabwe's former President Robert Mugabe buried in his hometown|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/28/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe-buried-intl/index.html?no-st=1569797972|url-status=live|access-date=30 September 2019|work=CNN}}</ref> == References == <references /> ===Bibliography=== * {{cite book |last=Alao |first=Abiodun |year=2012 |title=Mugabe and the Politics of Security in Zimbabwe |location=Montreal and Kingston |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-4044-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Blair |first=David |year=2002 |title=Degrees in Violence: Robert Mugabe and the Struggle for Power in Zimbabwe |location=London and New York |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-5974-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/degreesinviolenc0000blai }} * {{cite journal |last1=Chigora |first1=Percyslage |last2=Guzura |first2=Tobias |title=The Politics of the Government of National Unity (GNU) and Power Sharing in Zimbabwe: Challenges and Prospects for Democracy |journal=African Journal of History and Culture |volume=3 |number=2 |pages=20–26 |year=2011 }} * {{cite journal |last=Gallagher |first=Julia |title=The Battle for Zimbabwe in 2013: From Polarisation to Ambivalence |journal=Journal of Modern African Studies |year=2015 |volume=53 |number=1 |pages=27–49 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X14000640 |s2cid=154398977 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/26245/1/gallagher-the-battle-for-zimbabwe-in-2013.pdf |issn = 0022-278X}} * {{cite book |last=Holland |first=Heidi |year=2008 |title=Dinner with Mugabe: The Untold Story of a Freedom Fighter Who Became a Tyrant |location=London |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-104079-0 }} * {{cite journal |last=Howard-Hassmann |first=Rhoda E. |title=Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000–2009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=32 |number=4 |year=2010 |pages=898–920 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2010.0030 |s2cid=143046672 }} * {{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=Our Votes, Our Guns: Robert Mugabe and the Tragedy of Zimbabwe|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2002|isbn=978-1-58648-186-5|location=New York}} * {{cite journal |last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first=Sabelo J. |year=2009 |title=Making Sense of Mugabeism in Local and Global Politics: 'So Blair, keep your England and let me keep my Zimbabwe' |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=30 |pages=1139–1158 |doi=10.1080/01436590903037424 |s2cid=143775424 |number=6}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|first=Sabelo J.|author-mask=|contribution=Introduction: Mugabeism and Entanglements of History, Politics, and Power in the Making of Zimbabwe|title=Mugabeism? History, Politics, and Power in Zimbabwe|editor=Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni|year=2015|pages=1–25|location=New York|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-54344-8}} * {{cite book|last=Norman|first=Andrew|title=Mugabe: Teacher, Revolutionary, Tyrant|publisher=The History Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-86227-491-4|location=Stroud}} * {{cite journal |last1=Onslow |first1=Sue |last2=Redding |first2=Sean |year=2009 |title=Wasted Riches: Robert Mugabe and the Desolation of Zimbabwe |journal=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |volume=10 |pages=63–72 |jstor=43134191 |number=1}} * {{cite journal |last=Shire |first=George |year=2007 |title=The Case for Robert Mugabe: Sinner or Sinned Against? |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=37 |pages=32–35 |doi=10.1080/00064246.2007.11413379 |jstor=41069872 |s2cid=147587061 |number=1}} * {{cite journal |last=Sithole |first=Masipula |year=2001 |title=Fighting Authoritarianism in Zimbabwe |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=2 |pages=160–169 |doi=10.1353/jod.2001.0015 |s2cid=144918292 |number=1}} * {{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David|title=Mugabe|last2=Simpson|first2=Colin|publisher=Sphere Books|year=1981|isbn=978-0-7221-7868-3|location=London}} * {{cite journal |last=Tendi |first=Blessing-Miles |year=2011 |title=Robert Mugabe and Toxicity: History and Context Matter |journal=Representation |volume=47 |pages=307–318 |doi=10.1080/00344893.2011.596439 |s2cid=154541752 |number=3}} * {{cite journal |last=Tendi |first=Blessing-Miles |author-mask= |year=2013 |title=Robert Mugabe's 2013 Presidential Election Campaign |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=39 |pages=963–970 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2013.858537 |s2cid=145432632 |number=4}} == External links == hsiom5u6nes9yfbz7tw5v8e3u16w9xl 63745 63744 2025-06-17T06:47:04Z DaSupremo 9 /* External links */ Improve article 63745 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na Bona den Gabriel get six kiddies: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, den Bridgette.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17.</ref> Na dem belong to de Zezuru clan, one of de smallest branches of de Shona tribe.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 26.</ref> Na Mugabe ein paternal grandpoppie be Chief Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure wey serve King Lobengula insyd de 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2017|title=Mugabe's grandfather served King Lobengula|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107223825/http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|archive-date=7 November 2017|publisher=Bulawayo}}</ref> Thru ein poppie, na he claim membership of de chieftaincy family wey na provide de hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2015|title=President At 91: How President Mugabe Became My Father|url=https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/president-at-91-how-president-mugabe-became-my-father|access-date=18 February 2020|institution=The Sunday Mail}}</ref> ==Post-presidency== ===Illness, death den funeral: 2019=== Na Mugabe no fi walk, according to Emmerson Mnangagwa insyd November 2018, wey na he dey receive treatment insyd [[Singapore]] for de previous two months.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46329242 | title= Ex-Zimbabwe President Mugabe 'unable to walk' | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 24 November 2018 }}</ref> Na dem hospitalise am der insyd April 2019, wey dey make de last of chaw trips to de country for medical treatment, as na he do late insyd ein presidency den dey follow ein resignation.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152 | title= Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burke |first1=Jason |last2=Smith |first2=David |date=6 September 2019 |title=Robert Mugabe: former Zimbabwean president dies aged 95 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906054505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2019 |title=Zimbabwe's former president Robert Mugabe dies in Singapore |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |work=Reuters |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906053440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Na he die at Gleneagles Hospital on 6 September 2019 at about 10:40&nbsp;am, aged 95 (Singapore Standard Time), according to a senior Zimbabwean diplomat.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.straitstimes.com/world/africa/ex-zimbabwe-leader-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95-bbc | title= Ex-Zimbabwe leader Robert Mugabe dies at 95 in Singapore | website = The Straits Times | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref> Although na dem no officially disclose ein cause of death,<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-mugabe-has-died-zimbabwes-founding-father-turned-strongman-dies-at-95-cause-of-death-unknown-2019-09-06/|title=Robert Mugabe has died; Zimbabwe's founding father turned strongman dies at 95 cause of death unknown|date=6 September 2019|publisher=CBS News|access-date=6 September 2019}}</ref> na Mnangagwa, ein successor, tell ZANU–PF supporters insyd New York City dat na Mugabe get advanced cancer wey na ein chemotherapy treatment cease to be effective.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mnangagwa Reveals Mugabe was Being Treated for Cancer Before his Death |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death |website=Eyewitness News |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Former President Mugabe cause of death revealed |url=https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/ |website=The Herald |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref> On 14 September 2019, na dem hold Mugabe ein state funeral,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/15/pomp-thin-crowds-mixed-feelings-as-robert-mugabe-laid-to-rest|title=Pomp, thin crowds and mixed feelings as Robert Mugabe is buried|first=Jason|last=Burke|work=The Guardian|date=15 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.premier.org.uk/News/World/The-end-does-not-justify-the-means-say-Zimbabwean-bishops-as-Mugabe-s-funeral-takes-place|title='The end does not justify the means' say Zimbabwean bishops as Mugabe's funeral takes place|first=Cara|last=Bentley|publisher=Premier Christian Radio|date=14 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> wich na dem open to de public, at de National Sports Stadium, plus an aerial photo wey dey show de 60,000 capacity stadium to be about a quarter full.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49686131|title=Mugabe funeral: Leader's body kept in hometown after state funeral|work=BBC News|date=14 September 2019|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> Na leaders den former leaders of various African countries attend de funeral, among dem be Mnangagwa, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, [[Sam Nujoma]], Hifikepunye Pohamba den Hage Geingob of [[Namibia]], Joseph Kabila of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], Uhuru Kenyatta of [[Kenya]] den Cyril Ramaphosa of South Africa.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral" /> On 26 September 2019, na Nick Mangwana state dat dem go bury Mugabe insyd ein home town of Kutama "to respect de wishes of families of deceased heroes".<ref>{{cite news|title=Mugabe to be buried in home town after final twist in row|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49846340|access-date=26 September 2019|work=BBC News|date=26 September 2019}}</ref> Na de burial take place insyd de courtyard of ein home insyd Kutama on 28 September 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49865776|title=Mugabe funeral: Zimbabwe ex-president laid to rest in Kutama|publisher=BBC News|date=28 September 2024|accessdate=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Chingono|first1=Mark|last2=Adebayo|first2=Bukola|date=28 September 2019|title=Zimbabwe's former President Robert Mugabe buried in his hometown|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/28/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe-buried-intl/index.html?no-st=1569797972|url-status=live|access-date=30 September 2019|work=CNN}}</ref> == References == <references /> ===Bibliography=== * {{cite book |last=Alao |first=Abiodun |year=2012 |title=Mugabe and the Politics of Security in Zimbabwe |location=Montreal and Kingston |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-4044-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Blair |first=David |year=2002 |title=Degrees in Violence: Robert Mugabe and the Struggle for Power in Zimbabwe |location=London and New York |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-5974-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/degreesinviolenc0000blai }} * {{cite journal |last1=Chigora |first1=Percyslage |last2=Guzura |first2=Tobias |title=The Politics of the Government of National Unity (GNU) and Power Sharing in Zimbabwe: Challenges and Prospects for Democracy |journal=African Journal of History and Culture |volume=3 |number=2 |pages=20–26 |year=2011 }} * {{cite journal |last=Gallagher |first=Julia |title=The Battle for Zimbabwe in 2013: From Polarisation to Ambivalence |journal=Journal of Modern African Studies |year=2015 |volume=53 |number=1 |pages=27–49 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X14000640 |s2cid=154398977 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/26245/1/gallagher-the-battle-for-zimbabwe-in-2013.pdf |issn = 0022-278X}} * {{cite book |last=Holland |first=Heidi |year=2008 |title=Dinner with Mugabe: The Untold Story of a Freedom Fighter Who Became a Tyrant |location=London |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-104079-0 }} * {{cite journal |last=Howard-Hassmann |first=Rhoda E. |title=Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000–2009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=32 |number=4 |year=2010 |pages=898–920 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2010.0030 |s2cid=143046672 }} * {{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=Our Votes, Our Guns: Robert Mugabe and the Tragedy of Zimbabwe|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2002|isbn=978-1-58648-186-5|location=New York}} * {{cite journal |last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first=Sabelo J. |year=2009 |title=Making Sense of Mugabeism in Local and Global Politics: 'So Blair, keep your England and let me keep my Zimbabwe' |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=30 |pages=1139–1158 |doi=10.1080/01436590903037424 |s2cid=143775424 |number=6}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|first=Sabelo J.|author-mask=|contribution=Introduction: Mugabeism and Entanglements of History, Politics, and Power in the Making of Zimbabwe|title=Mugabeism? History, Politics, and Power in Zimbabwe|editor=Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni|year=2015|pages=1–25|location=New York|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-54344-8}} * {{cite book|last=Norman|first=Andrew|title=Mugabe: Teacher, Revolutionary, Tyrant|publisher=The History Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-86227-491-4|location=Stroud}} * {{cite journal |last1=Onslow |first1=Sue |last2=Redding |first2=Sean |year=2009 |title=Wasted Riches: Robert Mugabe and the Desolation of Zimbabwe |journal=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |volume=10 |pages=63–72 |jstor=43134191 |number=1}} * {{cite journal |last=Shire |first=George |year=2007 |title=The Case for Robert Mugabe: Sinner or Sinned Against? |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=37 |pages=32–35 |doi=10.1080/00064246.2007.11413379 |jstor=41069872 |s2cid=147587061 |number=1}} * {{cite journal |last=Sithole |first=Masipula |year=2001 |title=Fighting Authoritarianism in Zimbabwe |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=2 |pages=160–169 |doi=10.1353/jod.2001.0015 |s2cid=144918292 |number=1}} * {{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David|title=Mugabe|last2=Simpson|first2=Colin|publisher=Sphere Books|year=1981|isbn=978-0-7221-7868-3|location=London}} * {{cite journal |last=Tendi |first=Blessing-Miles |year=2011 |title=Robert Mugabe and Toxicity: History and Context Matter |journal=Representation |volume=47 |pages=307–318 |doi=10.1080/00344893.2011.596439 |s2cid=154541752 |number=3}} * {{cite journal |last=Tendi |first=Blessing-Miles |author-mask= |year=2013 |title=Robert Mugabe's 2013 Presidential Election Campaign |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=39 |pages=963–970 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2013.858537 |s2cid=145432632 |number=4}} == External links == {{Sister project links}} * {{cite book |last=Bourne |first=Richard |year=2011 |title=Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? |publisher=Zed |isbn=978-1-84813-521-5}} * {{cite book |last=Chan |first=Stephen |year=2002 |title=Robert Mugabe: A Life of Power and Violence |publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-873-1}} * {{cite book |last=Godwin |first=Peter |year=2011 |title=The Fear: The Last Days of Robert Mugabe |location=London |publisher=Picador |isbn=978-0-330-50777-6}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Moyo |last2=Yeros |first2=P |title=The Radicalised State: Zimbabwe's Interrupted Revolution |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=34 |number=111 |pages=103–121 |year=2007 |jstor=20406365 |doi=10.1080/03056240701340431 |s2cid=153894802 |hdl=10.1080/03056240701340431 |hdl-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last=Raftopoulos |first=Brian |title=The Zimbabwean crisis and the challenges of the Left |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=32 |number=2 |year=2006 |pages=203–219 |jstor=25065088 |doi=10.1080/03057070600655988 |bibcode=2006JSAfS..32..203R |s2cid=59371826 }} {{Authority control}} fw37vm3kymefhjrnfjewk4eqnv92yrt 63747 63745 2025-06-17T06:49:50Z DaSupremo 9 Add categories 63747 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na Bona den Gabriel get six kiddies: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, den Bridgette.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17.</ref> Na dem belong to de Zezuru clan, one of de smallest branches of de Shona tribe.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 26.</ref> Na Mugabe ein paternal grandpoppie be Chief Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure wey serve King Lobengula insyd de 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2017|title=Mugabe's grandfather served King Lobengula|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107223825/http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|archive-date=7 November 2017|publisher=Bulawayo}}</ref> Thru ein poppie, na he claim membership of de chieftaincy family wey na provide de hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2015|title=President At 91: How President Mugabe Became My Father|url=https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/president-at-91-how-president-mugabe-became-my-father|access-date=18 February 2020|institution=The Sunday Mail}}</ref> ==Post-presidency== ===Illness, death den funeral: 2019=== Na Mugabe no fi walk, according to Emmerson Mnangagwa insyd November 2018, wey na he dey receive treatment insyd [[Singapore]] for de previous two months.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46329242 | title= Ex-Zimbabwe President Mugabe 'unable to walk' | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 24 November 2018 }}</ref> Na dem hospitalise am der insyd April 2019, wey dey make de last of chaw trips to de country for medical treatment, as na he do late insyd ein presidency den dey follow ein resignation.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152 | title= Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burke |first1=Jason |last2=Smith |first2=David |date=6 September 2019 |title=Robert Mugabe: former Zimbabwean president dies aged 95 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906054505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2019 |title=Zimbabwe's former president Robert Mugabe dies in Singapore |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |work=Reuters |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906053440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Na he die at Gleneagles Hospital on 6 September 2019 at about 10:40&nbsp;am, aged 95 (Singapore Standard Time), according to a senior Zimbabwean diplomat.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.straitstimes.com/world/africa/ex-zimbabwe-leader-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95-bbc | title= Ex-Zimbabwe leader Robert Mugabe dies at 95 in Singapore | website = The Straits Times | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref> Although na dem no officially disclose ein cause of death,<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-mugabe-has-died-zimbabwes-founding-father-turned-strongman-dies-at-95-cause-of-death-unknown-2019-09-06/|title=Robert Mugabe has died; Zimbabwe's founding father turned strongman dies at 95 cause of death unknown|date=6 September 2019|publisher=CBS News|access-date=6 September 2019}}</ref> na Mnangagwa, ein successor, tell ZANU–PF supporters insyd New York City dat na Mugabe get advanced cancer wey na ein chemotherapy treatment cease to be effective.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mnangagwa Reveals Mugabe was Being Treated for Cancer Before his Death |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death |website=Eyewitness News |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Former President Mugabe cause of death revealed |url=https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/ |website=The Herald |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref> On 14 September 2019, na dem hold Mugabe ein state funeral,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/15/pomp-thin-crowds-mixed-feelings-as-robert-mugabe-laid-to-rest|title=Pomp, thin crowds and mixed feelings as Robert Mugabe is buried|first=Jason|last=Burke|work=The Guardian|date=15 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.premier.org.uk/News/World/The-end-does-not-justify-the-means-say-Zimbabwean-bishops-as-Mugabe-s-funeral-takes-place|title='The end does not justify the means' say Zimbabwean bishops as Mugabe's funeral takes place|first=Cara|last=Bentley|publisher=Premier Christian Radio|date=14 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> wich na dem open to de public, at de National Sports Stadium, plus an aerial photo wey dey show de 60,000 capacity stadium to be about a quarter full.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49686131|title=Mugabe funeral: Leader's body kept in hometown after state funeral|work=BBC News|date=14 September 2019|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> Na leaders den former leaders of various African countries attend de funeral, among dem be Mnangagwa, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, [[Sam Nujoma]], Hifikepunye Pohamba den Hage Geingob of [[Namibia]], Joseph Kabila of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], Uhuru Kenyatta of [[Kenya]] den Cyril Ramaphosa of South Africa.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral" /> On 26 September 2019, na Nick Mangwana state dat dem go bury Mugabe insyd ein home town of Kutama "to respect de wishes of families of deceased heroes".<ref>{{cite news|title=Mugabe to be buried in home town after final twist in row|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49846340|access-date=26 September 2019|work=BBC News|date=26 September 2019}}</ref> Na de burial take place insyd de courtyard of ein home insyd Kutama on 28 September 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49865776|title=Mugabe funeral: Zimbabwe ex-president laid to rest in Kutama|publisher=BBC News|date=28 September 2024|accessdate=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Chingono|first1=Mark|last2=Adebayo|first2=Bukola|date=28 September 2019|title=Zimbabwe's former President Robert Mugabe buried in his hometown|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/28/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe-buried-intl/index.html?no-st=1569797972|url-status=live|access-date=30 September 2019|work=CNN}}</ref> == References == <references /> ===Bibliography=== * {{cite book |last=Alao |first=Abiodun |year=2012 |title=Mugabe and the Politics of Security in Zimbabwe |location=Montreal and Kingston |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-4044-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Blair |first=David |year=2002 |title=Degrees in Violence: Robert Mugabe and the Struggle for Power in Zimbabwe |location=London and New York |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-5974-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/degreesinviolenc0000blai }} * {{cite journal |last1=Chigora |first1=Percyslage |last2=Guzura |first2=Tobias |title=The Politics of the Government of National Unity (GNU) and Power Sharing in Zimbabwe: Challenges and Prospects for Democracy |journal=African Journal of History and Culture |volume=3 |number=2 |pages=20–26 |year=2011 }} * {{cite journal |last=Gallagher |first=Julia |title=The Battle for Zimbabwe in 2013: From Polarisation to Ambivalence |journal=Journal of Modern African Studies |year=2015 |volume=53 |number=1 |pages=27–49 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X14000640 |s2cid=154398977 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/26245/1/gallagher-the-battle-for-zimbabwe-in-2013.pdf |issn = 0022-278X}} * {{cite book |last=Holland |first=Heidi |year=2008 |title=Dinner with Mugabe: The Untold Story of a Freedom Fighter Who Became a Tyrant |location=London |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-104079-0 }} * {{cite journal |last=Howard-Hassmann |first=Rhoda E. |title=Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000–2009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=32 |number=4 |year=2010 |pages=898–920 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2010.0030 |s2cid=143046672 }} * {{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=Our Votes, Our Guns: Robert Mugabe and the Tragedy of Zimbabwe|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2002|isbn=978-1-58648-186-5|location=New York}} * {{cite journal |last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first=Sabelo J. |year=2009 |title=Making Sense of Mugabeism in Local and Global Politics: 'So Blair, keep your England and let me keep my Zimbabwe' |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=30 |pages=1139–1158 |doi=10.1080/01436590903037424 |s2cid=143775424 |number=6}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|first=Sabelo J.|author-mask=|contribution=Introduction: Mugabeism and Entanglements of History, Politics, and Power in the Making of Zimbabwe|title=Mugabeism? History, Politics, and Power in Zimbabwe|editor=Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni|year=2015|pages=1–25|location=New York|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-54344-8}} * {{cite book|last=Norman|first=Andrew|title=Mugabe: Teacher, Revolutionary, Tyrant|publisher=The History Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-86227-491-4|location=Stroud}} * {{cite journal |last1=Onslow |first1=Sue |last2=Redding |first2=Sean |year=2009 |title=Wasted Riches: Robert Mugabe and the Desolation of Zimbabwe |journal=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |volume=10 |pages=63–72 |jstor=43134191 |number=1}} * {{cite journal |last=Shire |first=George |year=2007 |title=The Case for Robert Mugabe: Sinner or Sinned Against? |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=37 |pages=32–35 |doi=10.1080/00064246.2007.11413379 |jstor=41069872 |s2cid=147587061 |number=1}} * {{cite journal |last=Sithole |first=Masipula |year=2001 |title=Fighting Authoritarianism in Zimbabwe |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=2 |pages=160–169 |doi=10.1353/jod.2001.0015 |s2cid=144918292 |number=1}} * {{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David|title=Mugabe|last2=Simpson|first2=Colin|publisher=Sphere Books|year=1981|isbn=978-0-7221-7868-3|location=London}} * {{cite journal |last=Tendi |first=Blessing-Miles |year=2011 |title=Robert Mugabe and Toxicity: History and Context Matter |journal=Representation |volume=47 |pages=307–318 |doi=10.1080/00344893.2011.596439 |s2cid=154541752 |number=3}} * {{cite journal |last=Tendi |first=Blessing-Miles |author-mask= |year=2013 |title=Robert Mugabe's 2013 Presidential Election Campaign |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=39 |pages=963–970 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2013.858537 |s2cid=145432632 |number=4}} == External links == {{Sister project links}} * {{cite book |last=Bourne |first=Richard |year=2011 |title=Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? |publisher=Zed |isbn=978-1-84813-521-5}} * {{cite book |last=Chan |first=Stephen |year=2002 |title=Robert Mugabe: A Life of Power and Violence |publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-873-1}} * {{cite book |last=Godwin |first=Peter |year=2011 |title=The Fear: The Last Days of Robert Mugabe |location=London |publisher=Picador |isbn=978-0-330-50777-6}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Moyo |last2=Yeros |first2=P |title=The Radicalised State: Zimbabwe's Interrupted Revolution |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=34 |number=111 |pages=103–121 |year=2007 |jstor=20406365 |doi=10.1080/03056240701340431 |s2cid=153894802 |hdl=10.1080/03056240701340431 |hdl-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last=Raftopoulos |first=Brian |title=The Zimbabwean crisis and the challenges of the Left |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=32 |number=2 |year=2006 |pages=203–219 |jstor=25065088 |doi=10.1080/03057070600655988 |bibcode=2006JSAfS..32..203R |s2cid=59371826 }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mugabe, Robert Gabriel}} [[Category:Robert Mugabe| ]] [[Category:1924 births]] [[Category:2019 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Zimbabwean people]] [[Category:20th-century presidents insyd Africa]] [[Category:20th-century Roman Catholics]] [[Category:20th-century Zimbabwean politicians]] [[Category:21st-century Roman Catholics]] [[Category:21st-century Zimbabwean politicians]] [[Category:Alumni of Achimota School]] [[Category:Alumni of Kutama College]] [[Category:Alumni of de London School of Economics]] [[Category:Alumni of de University of London]] [[Category:Alumni of University of London Worldwide]] [[Category:Anti-Americanism]] [[Category:Anti-imperialism insyd Africa]] [[Category:Anti-British sentiment]] [[Category:Annulled Honorary Knights Grand Cross of de Order of the Bath]] [[Category:Chairpersons of de African Union]] [[Category:Deaths from cancer insyd Singapore]] [[Category:Defence ministers of Zimbabwe]] [[Category:Genocide perpetrators]] 4k4oxpo6o9y49omm4myml2rd58wo39u 63749 63747 2025-06-17T06:51:28Z DaSupremo 9 Add categories 63749 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe''' (/mʊˈɡɑːbi/;<ref>[[mwod:Mugabe|"Mugabe"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster.</ref> Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) na he be a Zimbabwean revolutionary den politician wey serve as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 den then as Presido from 1987 to 2017. Na he serve as Leader of de Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 wey na he lead ein successor political party, de ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during de 1970s den 1980s na he identify as a Marxist–Leninist, den as a socialist during de 1990s den de remainder of ein career. Na dem born Mugabe to a poor Shona family insyd Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Na he educate at Kutama College den de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd South Africa, he then work as a schoolteacher insyd Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, den Ghana. Angered by white minority rule of ein homeland within de British Empire, na Mugabe embrace Marxism wey na he join [[African Union|African]] nationalists calling for an independent state wey be controlled by de black majority. After na he make antigovernmental comments, na dem convict am of sedition wey dem imprison am between 1964 den 1974. On release, na he flee to Mozambique, wey he establish ein leadership of ZANU, wey na he oversee ein role insyd de Rhodesian Bush War, dey fight Ian Smith ein predominantly white government. Na he reluctantly participate insyd peace talks insyd de United Kingdom wey na e result insyd de Lancaster House Agreement, wey put an end to de war. Insyd de 1980 general election, na Mugabe lead ZANU-PF to victory, wey he cam be Prime Minister wen de country, dem now rename Zimbabwe, gain internationally recognized independence later dat year. Na Mugabe ein administration expand healthcare den education den—despite ein professed desire for a socialist society—he adher largely to mainstream economic policies. Na Mugabe ein calls for racial reconciliation fail to stem growing white emigration, while relations plus Joshua Nkomo ein Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) sanso deteriorate. Insyd de Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, na Mugabe ein 5th Brigade crush ZAPU-linked opposition insyd Matabeleland insyd a campaign wey kill at least 20,000 people, mostly Ndebele civilians. Internationally, na he send troops into de Second Congo War wey na he chair de Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), de Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), den de [[African Union]] (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, na Mugabe emphasize de redistribution of land wey na be controlled by white farmers to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at de slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 na he encourage black Zimbabweans make dem violently seize white-owned farms. Na chow production be severely impacted, wey lead to famine, economic decline, den foreign sanctions. Na opposition to Mugabe grow, buh na dem re-elect am insyd 2002, 2008, den 2013 thru campaigns wey be dominated by violence, electoral fraud, den nationalistic appeals to ein rural Shona voter base. Insyd 2017, na members of ein party oust am insyd a coup, wey dem replace am plus former vice pee Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe ein politics for nearly four decades, na Mugabe be a controversial figure. Na dem praise am as a revolutionary hero of de African liberation struggle wey help free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, den white minority rule. Na critics accuse Mugabe of he be a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement den widespread corruption den human rights abuses, wey dey include anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, den genocide. ==Early life== ===Kiddie time: 1924–1945=== Na dem born Robert Gabriel Mugabe on 21 February 1924 at de Kutama Mission village insyd Southern Rhodesia ein Zvimba District.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na ein poppie, Gabriel Matibiri, be a carpenter while na ein mommie Bona be a Christian catechist for de village kiddies.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], pp. 19, 21; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFNorman2008|Norman 2008]], p. 15.</ref> Na dem be trained insyd dema professions by de Jesuits, de Roman Catholic religious order wich na dem establish de mission.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFMeredith2002|Meredith 2002]], p. 19.</ref> Na Bona den Gabriel get six kiddies: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, den Bridgette.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981|Smith & Simpson 1981]], p. 11; [[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 17.</ref> Na dem belong to de Zezuru clan, one of de smallest branches of de Shona tribe.<ref>[[:en:Robert_Mugabe#CITEREFBlair2002|Blair 2002]], p. 26.</ref> Na Mugabe ein paternal grandpoppie be Chief Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure wey serve King Lobengula insyd de 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2017|title=Mugabe's grandfather served King Lobengula|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107223825/http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-118372.html|archive-date=7 November 2017|publisher=Bulawayo}}</ref> Thru ein poppie, na he claim membership of de chieftaincy family wey na provide de hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2015|title=President At 91: How President Mugabe Became My Father|url=https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/president-at-91-how-president-mugabe-became-my-father|access-date=18 February 2020|institution=The Sunday Mail}}</ref> ==Post-presidency== ===Illness, death den funeral: 2019=== Na Mugabe no fi walk, according to Emmerson Mnangagwa insyd November 2018, wey na he dey receive treatment insyd [[Singapore]] for de previous two months.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46329242 | title= Ex-Zimbabwe President Mugabe 'unable to walk' | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 24 November 2018 }}</ref> Na dem hospitalise am der insyd April 2019, wey dey make de last of chaw trips to de country for medical treatment, as na he do late insyd ein presidency den dey follow ein resignation.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152 | title= Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burke |first1=Jason |last2=Smith |first2=David |date=6 September 2019 |title=Robert Mugabe: former Zimbabwean president dies aged 95 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906054505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2019 |title=Zimbabwe's former president Robert Mugabe dies in Singapore |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |work=Reuters |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906053440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Na he die at Gleneagles Hospital on 6 September 2019 at about 10:40&nbsp;am, aged 95 (Singapore Standard Time), according to a senior Zimbabwean diplomat.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.straitstimes.com/world/africa/ex-zimbabwe-leader-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95-bbc | title= Ex-Zimbabwe leader Robert Mugabe dies at 95 in Singapore | website = The Straits Times | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref> Although na dem no officially disclose ein cause of death,<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-mugabe-has-died-zimbabwes-founding-father-turned-strongman-dies-at-95-cause-of-death-unknown-2019-09-06/|title=Robert Mugabe has died; Zimbabwe's founding father turned strongman dies at 95 cause of death unknown|date=6 September 2019|publisher=CBS News|access-date=6 September 2019}}</ref> na Mnangagwa, ein successor, tell ZANU–PF supporters insyd New York City dat na Mugabe get advanced cancer wey na ein chemotherapy treatment cease to be effective.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mnangagwa Reveals Mugabe was Being Treated for Cancer Before his Death |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death |website=Eyewitness News |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Former President Mugabe cause of death revealed |url=https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/ |website=The Herald |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref> On 14 September 2019, na dem hold Mugabe ein state funeral,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/15/pomp-thin-crowds-mixed-feelings-as-robert-mugabe-laid-to-rest|title=Pomp, thin crowds and mixed feelings as Robert Mugabe is buried|first=Jason|last=Burke|work=The Guardian|date=15 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.premier.org.uk/News/World/The-end-does-not-justify-the-means-say-Zimbabwean-bishops-as-Mugabe-s-funeral-takes-place|title='The end does not justify the means' say Zimbabwean bishops as Mugabe's funeral takes place|first=Cara|last=Bentley|publisher=Premier Christian Radio|date=14 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> wich na dem open to de public, at de National Sports Stadium, plus an aerial photo wey dey show de 60,000 capacity stadium to be about a quarter full.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49686131|title=Mugabe funeral: Leader's body kept in hometown after state funeral|work=BBC News|date=14 September 2019|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> Na leaders den former leaders of various African countries attend de funeral, among dem be Mnangagwa, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, [[Sam Nujoma]], Hifikepunye Pohamba den Hage Geingob of [[Namibia]], Joseph Kabila of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], Uhuru Kenyatta of [[Kenya]] den Cyril Ramaphosa of South Africa.<ref name="africaleadersfuneral" /> On 26 September 2019, na Nick Mangwana state dat dem go bury Mugabe insyd ein home town of Kutama "to respect de wishes of families of deceased heroes".<ref>{{cite news|title=Mugabe to be buried in home town after final twist in row|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49846340|access-date=26 September 2019|work=BBC News|date=26 September 2019}}</ref> Na de burial take place insyd de courtyard of ein home insyd Kutama on 28 September 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49865776|title=Mugabe funeral: Zimbabwe ex-president laid to rest in Kutama|publisher=BBC News|date=28 September 2024|accessdate=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Chingono|first1=Mark|last2=Adebayo|first2=Bukola|date=28 September 2019|title=Zimbabwe's former President Robert Mugabe buried in his hometown|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/28/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe-buried-intl/index.html?no-st=1569797972|url-status=live|access-date=30 September 2019|work=CNN}}</ref> == References == <references /> ===Bibliography=== * {{cite book |last=Alao |first=Abiodun |year=2012 |title=Mugabe and the Politics of Security in Zimbabwe |location=Montreal and Kingston |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-4044-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Blair |first=David |year=2002 |title=Degrees in Violence: Robert Mugabe and the Struggle for Power in Zimbabwe |location=London and New York |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-5974-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/degreesinviolenc0000blai }} * {{cite journal |last1=Chigora |first1=Percyslage |last2=Guzura |first2=Tobias |title=The Politics of the Government of National Unity (GNU) and Power Sharing in Zimbabwe: Challenges and Prospects for Democracy |journal=African Journal of History and Culture |volume=3 |number=2 |pages=20–26 |year=2011 }} * {{cite journal |last=Gallagher |first=Julia |title=The Battle for Zimbabwe in 2013: From Polarisation to Ambivalence |journal=Journal of Modern African Studies |year=2015 |volume=53 |number=1 |pages=27–49 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X14000640 |s2cid=154398977 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/26245/1/gallagher-the-battle-for-zimbabwe-in-2013.pdf |issn = 0022-278X}} * {{cite book |last=Holland |first=Heidi |year=2008 |title=Dinner with Mugabe: The Untold Story of a Freedom Fighter Who Became a Tyrant |location=London |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-104079-0 }} * {{cite journal |last=Howard-Hassmann |first=Rhoda E. |title=Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000–2009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=32 |number=4 |year=2010 |pages=898–920 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2010.0030 |s2cid=143046672 }} * {{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=Our Votes, Our Guns: Robert Mugabe and the Tragedy of Zimbabwe|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2002|isbn=978-1-58648-186-5|location=New York}} * {{cite journal |last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first=Sabelo J. |year=2009 |title=Making Sense of Mugabeism in Local and Global Politics: 'So Blair, keep your England and let me keep my Zimbabwe' |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=30 |pages=1139–1158 |doi=10.1080/01436590903037424 |s2cid=143775424 |number=6}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|first=Sabelo J.|author-mask=|contribution=Introduction: Mugabeism and Entanglements of History, Politics, and Power in the Making of Zimbabwe|title=Mugabeism? History, Politics, and Power in Zimbabwe|editor=Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni|year=2015|pages=1–25|location=New York|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-54344-8}} * {{cite book|last=Norman|first=Andrew|title=Mugabe: Teacher, Revolutionary, Tyrant|publisher=The History Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-86227-491-4|location=Stroud}} * {{cite journal |last1=Onslow |first1=Sue |last2=Redding |first2=Sean |year=2009 |title=Wasted Riches: Robert Mugabe and the Desolation of Zimbabwe |journal=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |volume=10 |pages=63–72 |jstor=43134191 |number=1}} * {{cite journal |last=Shire |first=George |year=2007 |title=The Case for Robert Mugabe: Sinner or Sinned Against? |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=37 |pages=32–35 |doi=10.1080/00064246.2007.11413379 |jstor=41069872 |s2cid=147587061 |number=1}} * {{cite journal |last=Sithole |first=Masipula |year=2001 |title=Fighting Authoritarianism in Zimbabwe |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=2 |pages=160–169 |doi=10.1353/jod.2001.0015 |s2cid=144918292 |number=1}} * {{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David|title=Mugabe|last2=Simpson|first2=Colin|publisher=Sphere Books|year=1981|isbn=978-0-7221-7868-3|location=London}} * {{cite journal |last=Tendi |first=Blessing-Miles |year=2011 |title=Robert Mugabe and Toxicity: History and Context Matter |journal=Representation |volume=47 |pages=307–318 |doi=10.1080/00344893.2011.596439 |s2cid=154541752 |number=3}} * {{cite journal |last=Tendi |first=Blessing-Miles |author-mask= |year=2013 |title=Robert Mugabe's 2013 Presidential Election Campaign |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=39 |pages=963–970 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2013.858537 |s2cid=145432632 |number=4}} == External links == {{Sister project links}} * {{cite book |last=Bourne |first=Richard |year=2011 |title=Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? |publisher=Zed |isbn=978-1-84813-521-5}} * {{cite book |last=Chan |first=Stephen |year=2002 |title=Robert Mugabe: A Life of Power and Violence |publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-873-1}} * {{cite book |last=Godwin |first=Peter |year=2011 |title=The Fear: The Last Days of Robert Mugabe |location=London |publisher=Picador |isbn=978-0-330-50777-6}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Moyo |last2=Yeros |first2=P |title=The Radicalised State: Zimbabwe's Interrupted Revolution |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=34 |number=111 |pages=103–121 |year=2007 |jstor=20406365 |doi=10.1080/03056240701340431 |s2cid=153894802 |hdl=10.1080/03056240701340431 |hdl-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last=Raftopoulos |first=Brian |title=The Zimbabwean crisis and the challenges of the Left |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=32 |number=2 |year=2006 |pages=203–219 |jstor=25065088 |doi=10.1080/03057070600655988 |bibcode=2006JSAfS..32..203R |s2cid=59371826 }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mugabe, Robert Gabriel}} [[Category:Robert Mugabe| ]] [[Category:1924 births]] [[Category:2019 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Zimbabwean people]] [[Category:20th-century presidents insyd Africa]] [[Category:20th-century Roman Catholics]] [[Category:20th-century Zimbabwean politicians]] [[Category:21st-century Roman Catholics]] [[Category:21st-century Zimbabwean politicians]] [[Category:Alumni of Achimota School]] [[Category:Alumni of Kutama College]] [[Category:Alumni of de London School of Economics]] [[Category:Alumni of de University of London]] [[Category:Alumni of University of London Worldwide]] [[Category:Anti-Americanism]] [[Category:Anti-imperialism insyd Africa]] [[Category:Anti-British sentiment]] [[Category:Annulled Honorary Knights Grand Cross of de Order of the Bath]] [[Category:Chairpersons of de African Union]] [[Category:Deaths from cancer insyd Singapore]] [[Category:Defence ministers of Zimbabwe]] [[Category:Genocide perpetrators]] [[Category:Heads of government of Zimbabwe]] [[Category:Leaders dem oust by a coup]] [[Category:Mugabe family|Robert]] [[Category:People dem strip of honorary degrees]] [[Category:Presidents of Zimbabwe]] [[Category:Prisoners den detainees of Rhodesia]] [[Category:Prisoners den detainees of Zimbabwe]] [[Category:Rhodesian politicians]] [[Category:Rhodesian Roman Catholics]] [[Category:Roman Catholic activists]] [[Category:Secretaries-general of de Non-Aligned Movement]] [[Category:Shona people]] [[Category:University of Fort Hare alumni]] [[Category:University of South Africa alumni]] [[Category:ZANU–PF politicians]] [[Category:Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army personnel]] [[Category:Zimbabwean individuals subject to U.S. Department of de Treasury sanctions]] [[Category:Zimbabwean nationalists]] [[Category:Zimbabwean pan-Africanists]] [[Category:Zimbabwean revolutionaries]] [[Category:Zimbabwean Roman Catholics]] [[Category:Zimbabwean socialists]] [[Category:Anti-white racism insyd Africa]] rsfzjiykkzyeni9bxqpkbry12vj1ya9 0 17245 63806 63231 2025-06-17T09:26:12Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Abbas go jail and AML scatter 63806 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ferhat Abbas''' (Arabic: فرحات عباس‎; ALA-LC: Farḥāt ʿAbbās; 24 August 1899 – 24 December 1985)<ref name="Reich1990">{{Harvnb|Reich|1990|p=1}}</ref><ref name="Magill2013">{{Harvnb|O'Mara|1999|p=5}}</ref>[nb 1] was de [[Algeria]] politician who dey act in a provisional capacity as de then yet-to-become independent country's Prime Minister from 1958 to 1961, wey he become de first Chairman for de National Assembly en de first acting Big man for de nation after independence. A popular person for de Young Algerians, At first, Abbas dey fight make Algerian Muslims for France get political rights plus make them be France people by law.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Adria K.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|title=Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-03709-0|pages=78, 98|access-date=2022-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217203231/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|archive-date=2022-02-17|url-status=live}}</ref> But as time dey go on,he turn full time change maker,wey dey fight for Algeria as person wey love ein country.<ref name=":0" /> '''HOW E START''' Caid ein son,Said Ben Ahmed Abass plus Achoura Abass wey de nikki was Maza, dem born Ferhat Abbass in a village dem call Taher insyde Algeria. E papa no just be caid for Chahna village,dem still dash am di rosette plus silver rope wey show say he be commander for di Legion Of Honor<ref name=":1">[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFMoritz1961|Moritz 1961]], p. 1</ref>. When Abbas be young, he start school for Phillipeville wey now dem dey call Skikda, Constantine. Na there he take get him baccalaureate. Before he finish school, dem force am make he go serve for French army insyde medical team, wei he reach sajent level. After dat, Abbas go University of Algiers<ref>[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|Hoiberg 2010,]] p. 9</ref> go study pharmacy. After he finish school, Abbas get job for drug shop insyde Sétif. Na there he start enter politics. Dem later vote am make him join di municipal council, he later move go di general council for Constantine.<ref name=":2">Hoiberg 2010, p. [[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|9]]</ref> That time, Abbas dey back France well well. He even write one article for 1936 wey he title am 'I be France.<ref name=":1" />' But for 1938, he start bore France na de reason be di equal rights he dey hope for no show. So he come form one group wey dem call Algerian Popular Union. That group dey fight make French people and Algerians get equal rights, make dem still hold Algeria culture plus language as di main thing.<ref name=":2" />Wen World War II start, Abbas offer himself go join de medical team for French Army again. After he finish serve, de way he dey think for politics start change, and he begin turn him back give France because General Giraud no gree make Muslims join de fight against de people wey take over dema land as equals.<ref name=":1" />He still wan change,so he start fight for him people make make dem stand on dema own, wen e reach February 10,1943,he bring out de manifesto of de Algeria people.<ref name=":2" />The manifesto make am clear say Abbas ein way of thinking don change proper. He now talk say de French colonial rule no be good, wey he ask make Algeria control dem own affairs. Abbas talk say Algeria need constitution wey go make all Algerians equal. For May insyde, he plus some of him people add one clause wey talk say Algeria go be dema own boss (sovereign).<ref name=":2" />Dem publish de manifesto on June 26, but de governor general no accept am. Him plus Messali Hadj form one group wey dem name ''Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté'', plus dem fon for call make Algeria turn autonomous republic wey go rule demaself. This move make dem jail Abbas for one year and scatter the AML quick quick.<ref name=":2" /> crpb7lksjyjs3opcbdef7hxbjfi828d 63810 63806 2025-06-17T09:40:48Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 In 1946, Abbas form UDMA after he enter French Assembly. 63810 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ferhat Abbas''' (Arabic: فرحات عباس‎; ALA-LC: Farḥāt ʿAbbās; 24 August 1899 – 24 December 1985)<ref name="Reich1990">{{Harvnb|Reich|1990|p=1}}</ref><ref name="Magill2013">{{Harvnb|O'Mara|1999|p=5}}</ref>[nb 1] was de [[Algeria]] politician who dey act in a provisional capacity as de then yet-to-become independent country's Prime Minister from 1958 to 1961, wey he become de first Chairman for de National Assembly en de first acting Big man for de nation after independence. A popular person for de Young Algerians, At first, Abbas dey fight make Algerian Muslims for France get political rights plus make them be France people by law.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Adria K.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|title=Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-03709-0|pages=78, 98|access-date=2022-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217203231/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|archive-date=2022-02-17|url-status=live}}</ref> But as time dey go on,he turn full time change maker,wey dey fight for Algeria as person wey love ein country.<ref name=":0" /> '''HOW E START''' Caid ein son,Said Ben Ahmed Abass plus Achoura Abass wey de nikki was Maza, dem born Ferhat Abbass in a village dem call Taher insyde Algeria. E papa no just be caid for Chahna village,dem still dash am di rosette plus silver rope wey show say he be commander for di Legion Of Honor<ref name=":1">[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFMoritz1961|Moritz 1961]], p. 1</ref>. When Abbas be young, he start school for Phillipeville wey now dem dey call Skikda, Constantine. Na there he take get him baccalaureate. Before he finish school, dem force am make he go serve for French army insyde medical team, wei he reach sajent level. After dat, Abbas go University of Algiers<ref>[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|Hoiberg 2010,]] p. 9</ref> go study pharmacy. After he finish school, Abbas get job for drug shop insyde Sétif. Na there he start enter politics. Dem later vote am make him join di municipal council, he later move go di general council for Constantine.<ref name=":2">Hoiberg 2010, p. [[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|9]]</ref> That time, Abbas dey back France well well. He even write one article for 1936 wey he title am 'I be France.<ref name=":1" />' But for 1938, he start bore France na de reason be di equal rights he dey hope for no show. So he come form one group wey dem call Algerian Popular Union. That group dey fight make French people and Algerians get equal rights, make dem still hold Algeria culture plus language as di main thing.<ref name=":2" />Wen World War II start, Abbas offer himself go join de medical team for French Army again. After he finish serve, de way he dey think for politics start change, and he begin turn him back give France because General Giraud no gree make Muslims join de fight against de people wey take over dema land as equals.<ref name=":1" />He still wan change,so he start fight for him people make make dem stand on dema own, wen e reach February 10,1943,he bring out de manifesto of de Algeria people.<ref name=":2" />The manifesto make am clear say Abbas ein way of thinking don change proper. He now talk say de French colonial rule no be good, wey he ask make Algeria control dem own affairs. Abbas talk say Algeria need constitution wey go make all Algerians equal. For May insyde, he plus some of him people add one clause wey talk say Algeria go be dema own boss (sovereign).<ref name=":2" />Dem publish de manifesto on June 26, but de governor general no accept am. Him plus Messali Hadj form one group wey dem name ''Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté'', plus dem fon for call make Algeria turn autonomous republic wey go rule demaself. This move make dem jail Abbas for one year and scatter the AML quick quick.<ref name=":2" />In 1946, Abbas form Union Démocratique du Manifeste Algérien UDMA party after dem elect am enter French Assembly. he981i4b306i9dsxkqvtb4m1962bwy1 63814 63810 2025-06-17T09:49:00Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 De new group won calm approach, en Abbas become editor for *Egalité* in 1946. 63814 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ferhat Abbas''' (Arabic: فرحات عباس‎; ALA-LC: Farḥāt ʿAbbās; 24 August 1899 – 24 December 1985)<ref name="Reich1990">{{Harvnb|Reich|1990|p=1}}</ref><ref name="Magill2013">{{Harvnb|O'Mara|1999|p=5}}</ref>[nb 1] was de [[Algeria]] politician who dey act in a provisional capacity as de then yet-to-become independent country's Prime Minister from 1958 to 1961, wey he become de first Chairman for de National Assembly en de first acting Big man for de nation after independence. A popular person for de Young Algerians, At first, Abbas dey fight make Algerian Muslims for France get political rights plus make them be France people by law.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Adria K.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|title=Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-03709-0|pages=78, 98|access-date=2022-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217203231/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|archive-date=2022-02-17|url-status=live}}</ref> But as time dey go on,he turn full time change maker,wey dey fight for Algeria as person wey love ein country.<ref name=":0" /> '''HOW E START''' Caid ein son,Said Ben Ahmed Abass plus Achoura Abass wey de nikki was Maza, dem born Ferhat Abbass in a village dem call Taher insyde Algeria. E papa no just be caid for Chahna village,dem still dash am di rosette plus silver rope wey show say he be commander for di Legion Of Honor<ref name=":1">[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFMoritz1961|Moritz 1961]], p. 1</ref>. When Abbas be young, he start school for Phillipeville wey now dem dey call Skikda, Constantine. Na there he take get him baccalaureate. Before he finish school, dem force am make he go serve for French army insyde medical team, wei he reach sajent level. After dat, Abbas go University of Algiers<ref>[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|Hoiberg 2010,]] p. 9</ref> go study pharmacy. After he finish school, Abbas get job for drug shop insyde Sétif. Na there he start enter politics. Dem later vote am make him join di municipal council, he later move go di general council for Constantine.<ref name=":2">Hoiberg 2010, p. [[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|9]]</ref> That time, Abbas dey back France well well. He even write one article for 1936 wey he title am 'I be France.<ref name=":1" />' But for 1938, he start bore France na de reason be di equal rights he dey hope for no show. So he come form one group wey dem call Algerian Popular Union. That group dey fight make French people and Algerians get equal rights, make dem still hold Algeria culture plus language as di main thing.<ref name=":2" />Wen World War II start, Abbas offer himself go join de medical team for French Army again. After he finish serve, de way he dey think for politics start change, and he begin turn him back give France because General Giraud no gree make Muslims join de fight against de people wey take over dema land as equals.<ref name=":1" />He still wan change,so he start fight for him people make make dem stand on dema own, wen e reach February 10,1943,he bring out de manifesto of de Algeria people.<ref name=":2" />The manifesto make am clear say Abbas ein way of thinking don change proper. He now talk say de French colonial rule no be good, wey he ask make Algeria control dem own affairs. Abbas talk say Algeria need constitution wey go make all Algerians equal. For May insyde, he plus some of him people add one clause wey talk say Algeria go be dema own boss (sovereign).<ref name=":2" />Dem publish de manifesto on June 26, but de governor general no accept am. Him plus Messali Hadj form one group wey dem name ''Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté'', plus dem fon for call make Algeria turn autonomous republic wey go rule demaself. This move make dem jail Abbas for one year and scatter the AML quick quick.<ref name=":2" />In 1946, Abbas form Union Démocratique du Manifeste Algérien UDMA party after dem elect am enter French Assembly.Dis new group talk say make dem take calm way, like make Algeria get dem own state but still work plus France. For dat same 1946, dem make Abbas editor for one paper wey dem dey call ''Egalité''. 3adnoy7hc2bgv30hvku3jr8sy4ploik 63821 63814 2025-06-17T10:04:16Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 He do politics reach 1955. 63821 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ferhat Abbas''' (Arabic: فرحات عباس‎; ALA-LC: Farḥāt ʿAbbās; 24 August 1899 – 24 December 1985)<ref name="Reich1990">{{Harvnb|Reich|1990|p=1}}</ref><ref name="Magill2013">{{Harvnb|O'Mara|1999|p=5}}</ref>[nb 1] was de [[Algeria]] politician who dey act in a provisional capacity as de then yet-to-become independent country's Prime Minister from 1958 to 1961, wey he become de first Chairman for de National Assembly en de first acting Big man for de nation after independence. A popular person for de Young Algerians, At first, Abbas dey fight make Algerian Muslims for France get political rights plus make them be France people by law.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Adria K.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|title=Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-03709-0|pages=78, 98|access-date=2022-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217203231/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|archive-date=2022-02-17|url-status=live}}</ref> But as time dey go on,he turn full time change maker,wey dey fight for Algeria as person wey love ein country.<ref name=":0" /> '''HOW E START''' Caid ein son,Said Ben Ahmed Abass plus Achoura Abass wey de nikki was Maza, dem born Ferhat Abbass in a village dem call Taher insyde Algeria. E papa no just be caid for Chahna village,dem still dash am di rosette plus silver rope wey show say he be commander for di Legion Of Honor<ref name=":1">[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFMoritz1961|Moritz 1961]], p. 1</ref>. When Abbas be young, he start school for Phillipeville wey now dem dey call Skikda, Constantine. Na there he take get him baccalaureate. Before he finish school, dem force am make he go serve for French army insyde medical team, wei he reach sajent level. After dat, Abbas go University of Algiers<ref>[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|Hoiberg 2010,]] p. 9</ref> go study pharmacy. After he finish school, Abbas get job for drug shop insyde Sétif. Na there he start enter politics. Dem later vote am make him join di municipal council, he later move go di general council for Constantine.<ref name=":2">Hoiberg 2010, p. [[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|9]]</ref> That time, Abbas dey back France well well. He even write one article for 1936 wey he title am 'I be France.<ref name=":1" />' But for 1938, he start bore France na de reason be di equal rights he dey hope for no show. So he come form one group wey dem call Algerian Popular Union. That group dey fight make French people and Algerians get equal rights, make dem still hold Algeria culture plus language as di main thing.<ref name=":2" />Wen World War II start, Abbas offer himself go join de medical team for French Army again. After he finish serve, de way he dey think for politics start change, and he begin turn him back give France because General Giraud no gree make Muslims join de fight against de people wey take over dema land as equals.<ref name=":1" />He still wan change,so he start fight for him people make make dem stand on dema own, wen e reach February 10,1943,he bring out de manifesto of de Algeria people.<ref name=":2" />The manifesto make am clear say Abbas ein way of thinking don change proper. He now talk say de French colonial rule no be good, wey he ask make Algeria control dem own affairs. Abbas talk say Algeria need constitution wey go make all Algerians equal. For May insyde, he plus some of him people add one clause wey talk say Algeria go be dema own boss (sovereign).<ref name=":2" />Dem publish de manifesto on June 26, but de governor general no accept am. Him plus Messali Hadj form one group wey dem name ''Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté'', plus dem fon for call make Algeria turn autonomous republic wey go rule demaself. This move make dem jail Abbas for one year and scatter the AML quick quick.<ref name=":2" />In 1946, Abbas form Union Démocratique du Manifeste Algérien UDMA party after dem elect am enter French Assembly.Dis new group talk say make dem take calm way, like make Algeria get dem own state but still work plus France. For dat same 1946, dem make Abbas editor for one paper wey dem dey call ''Egalité.<ref name=":1" />''He still dey do politics as one of de people for Algerian Assembly reach 1955. gbfftac7ybi66luads57loyh49q2z9o 63823 63821 2025-06-17T10:11:33Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Dem arrest am two times 63823 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ferhat Abbas''' (Arabic: فرحات عباس‎; ALA-LC: Farḥāt ʿAbbās; 24 August 1899 – 24 December 1985)<ref name="Reich1990">{{Harvnb|Reich|1990|p=1}}</ref><ref name="Magill2013">{{Harvnb|O'Mara|1999|p=5}}</ref>[nb 1] was de [[Algeria]] politician who dey act in a provisional capacity as de then yet-to-become independent country's Prime Minister from 1958 to 1961, wey he become de first Chairman for de National Assembly en de first acting Big man for de nation after independence. A popular person for de Young Algerians, At first, Abbas dey fight make Algerian Muslims for France get political rights plus make them be France people by law.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Adria K.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|title=Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-03709-0|pages=78, 98|access-date=2022-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217203231/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|archive-date=2022-02-17|url-status=live}}</ref> But as time dey go on,he turn full time change maker,wey dey fight for Algeria as person wey love ein country.<ref name=":0" /> '''HOW E START''' Caid ein son,Said Ben Ahmed Abass plus Achoura Abass wey de nikki was Maza, dem born Ferhat Abbass in a village dem call Taher insyde Algeria. E papa no just be caid for Chahna village,dem still dash am di rosette plus silver rope wey show say he be commander for di Legion Of Honor<ref name=":1">[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFMoritz1961|Moritz 1961]], p. 1</ref>. When Abbas be young, he start school for Phillipeville wey now dem dey call Skikda, Constantine. Na there he take get him baccalaureate. Before he finish school, dem force am make he go serve for French army insyde medical team, wei he reach sajent level. After dat, Abbas go University of Algiers<ref>[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|Hoiberg 2010,]] p. 9</ref> go study pharmacy. After he finish school, Abbas get job for drug shop insyde Sétif. Na there he start enter politics. Dem later vote am make him join di municipal council, he later move go di general council for Constantine.<ref name=":2">Hoiberg 2010, p. [[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|9]]</ref> That time, Abbas dey back France well well. He even write one article for 1936 wey he title am 'I be France.<ref name=":1" />' But for 1938, he start bore France na de reason be di equal rights he dey hope for no show. So he come form one group wey dem call Algerian Popular Union. That group dey fight make French people and Algerians get equal rights, make dem still hold Algeria culture plus language as di main thing.<ref name=":2" />Wen World War II start, Abbas offer himself go join de medical team for French Army again. After he finish serve, de way he dey think for politics start change, and he begin turn him back give France because General Giraud no gree make Muslims join de fight against de people wey take over dema land as equals.<ref name=":1" />He still wan change,so he start fight for him people make make dem stand on dema own, wen e reach February 10,1943,he bring out de manifesto of de Algeria people.<ref name=":2" />The manifesto make am clear say Abbas ein way of thinking don change proper. He now talk say de French colonial rule no be good, wey he ask make Algeria control dem own affairs. Abbas talk say Algeria need constitution wey go make all Algerians equal. For May insyde, he plus some of him people add one clause wey talk say Algeria go be dema own boss (sovereign).<ref name=":2" />Dem publish de manifesto on June 26, but de governor general no accept am. Him plus Messali Hadj form one group wey dem name ''Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté'', plus dem fon for call make Algeria turn autonomous republic wey go rule demaself. This move make dem jail Abbas for one year and scatter the AML quick quick.<ref name=":2" />In 1946, Abbas form Union Démocratique du Manifeste Algérien UDMA party after dem elect am enter French Assembly.Dis new group talk say make dem take calm way, like make Algeria get dem own state but still work plus France. For dat same 1946, dem make Abbas editor for one paper wey dem dey call ''Egalité.<ref name=":1" />''He still dey do politics as one of de people for Algerian Assembly reach 1955.For those years dem arrest am two times. qs11ly2bp1v2kzm37gex1mnpkzxkzae 63825 63823 2025-06-17T10:18:02Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 He try fight for him country in calm way but e no work, so he run go Cairo in 1956. 63825 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ferhat Abbas''' (Arabic: فرحات عباس‎; ALA-LC: Farḥāt ʿAbbās; 24 August 1899 – 24 December 1985)<ref name="Reich1990">{{Harvnb|Reich|1990|p=1}}</ref><ref name="Magill2013">{{Harvnb|O'Mara|1999|p=5}}</ref>[nb 1] was de [[Algeria]] politician who dey act in a provisional capacity as de then yet-to-become independent country's Prime Minister from 1958 to 1961, wey he become de first Chairman for de National Assembly en de first acting Big man for de nation after independence. A popular person for de Young Algerians, At first, Abbas dey fight make Algerian Muslims for France get political rights plus make them be France people by law.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Adria K.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|title=Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-03709-0|pages=78, 98|access-date=2022-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217203231/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556|archive-date=2022-02-17|url-status=live}}</ref> But as time dey go on,he turn full time change maker,wey dey fight for Algeria as person wey love ein country.<ref name=":0" /> '''HOW E START''' Caid ein son,Said Ben Ahmed Abass plus Achoura Abass wey de nikki was Maza, dem born Ferhat Abbass in a village dem call Taher insyde Algeria. E papa no just be caid for Chahna village,dem still dash am di rosette plus silver rope wey show say he be commander for di Legion Of Honor<ref name=":1">[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFMoritz1961|Moritz 1961]], p. 1</ref>. When Abbas be young, he start school for Phillipeville wey now dem dey call Skikda, Constantine. Na there he take get him baccalaureate. Before he finish school, dem force am make he go serve for French army insyde medical team, wei he reach sajent level. After dat, Abbas go University of Algiers<ref>[[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|Hoiberg 2010,]] p. 9</ref> go study pharmacy. After he finish school, Abbas get job for drug shop insyde Sétif. Na there he start enter politics. Dem later vote am make him join di municipal council, he later move go di general council for Constantine.<ref name=":2">Hoiberg 2010, p. [[:en:Ferhat_Abbas#CITEREFHoiberg2010|9]]</ref> That time, Abbas dey back France well well. He even write one article for 1936 wey he title am 'I be France.<ref name=":1" />' But for 1938, he start bore France na de reason be di equal rights he dey hope for no show. So he come form one group wey dem call Algerian Popular Union. That group dey fight make French people and Algerians get equal rights, make dem still hold Algeria culture plus language as di main thing.<ref name=":2" />Wen World War II start, Abbas offer himself go join de medical team for French Army again. After he finish serve, de way he dey think for politics start change, and he begin turn him back give France because General Giraud no gree make Muslims join de fight against de people wey take over dema land as equals.<ref name=":1" />He still wan change,so he start fight for him people make make dem stand on dema own, wen e reach February 10,1943,he bring out de manifesto of de Algeria people.<ref name=":2" />The manifesto make am clear say Abbas ein way of thinking don change proper. He now talk say de French colonial rule no be good, wey he ask make Algeria control dem own affairs. Abbas talk say Algeria need constitution wey go make all Algerians equal. For May insyde, he plus some of him people add one clause wey talk say Algeria go be dema own boss (sovereign).<ref name=":2" />Dem publish de manifesto on June 26, but de governor general no accept am. Him plus Messali Hadj form one group wey dem name ''Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté'', plus dem fon for call make Algeria turn autonomous republic wey go rule demaself. This move make dem jail Abbas for one year and scatter the AML quick quick.<ref name=":2" />In 1946, Abbas form Union Démocratique du Manifeste Algérien UDMA party after dem elect am enter French Assembly.Dis new group talk say make dem take calm way, like make Algeria get dem own state but still work plus France. For dat same 1946, dem make Abbas editor for one paper wey dem dey call ''Egalité.<ref name=":1" />''He still dey do politics as one of de people for Algerian Assembly reach 1955.For those years dem arrest am two times .All de time he try be calm person wey dey fight for ein country job but e no work, so he run go Cairo for 1956.<ref name=":2" /> jru37qjjexvcgx2nkh65afp5nckwu9z 0 17250 63574 63053 2025-06-16T18:02:39Z DaSupremo 9 Add databox 63574 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ottobah Cugoano''' (c. 1757 – c. 1791), dem sanso know am as '''John Stuart''', na he be a British abolitionist den activist wey na dem born am insyd de [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] (modern-day [[Ghana]]). Na dem sell am into slavery at de age of thirteen wey na dem ship am to Grenada insyd de West Indies. Insyd 1772, na dem purchase am by a merchant wey take am to England, wer na Cugoano learn to read den write, wey na dem emancipate am. Eventually, na he start dey work give de artists Richard den Maria Cosway, wey cam be acquainted plus chaw prominent British political den cultural figures as a result. Na he join de Sons of Africa, a group of Black abolitionists insyd Britain, wey na he die at sam point after 1791.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bogues|first=Anthony|title=Black Heretics, Black Prophets: Radical Political Intellectuals|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|pages=25–46}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dahl |first=Adam |date=21 November 2019 |title=Creolizing Natural Liberty: Transnational Obligation in the Thought of Ottobah Cugoano |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/707400 |journal=The Journal of Politics |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=908–920 |doi=10.1086/707400 |issn=0022-3816 |s2cid=212865739 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Early life == Na dem born Quobna Ottobah Cugoano insyd 1757 insyd Agimaque (Ajumako) insyd de [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] (modern-day [[Ghana]]). Na dem born am into a [[Fante people|Fante]] family<ref name="''The Signifying Monkey'', Henry Louis Gates, Jr" /> wey na ein family be close to de local chief. At de age of 13, na dem kidnap Cugoano plus a group of kiddies, [[Atlantic slave trade|dem sell into slavery]] wey na dem transport dem from [[Cape Coast]] on a slave ship to Grenada.<ref name="Historic UK">{{Cite web|last=Brain|first=Jessica|date=July 28, 2021|title=The Sons of Africa|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Sons-Of-Africa/|access-date=February 20, 2025|website=Historic UK}}</ref> Na he work on a plantation insyd de Lesser Antilles til na dem purchase am insyd 1772 by Alexander Campbell, a Scottish plantation owner, wey take am into ein household. Late insyd 1772, na Campbell take am plus am on a visit to England wer na Cugoano be able make he secure ein freedom. On 20 August 1773, na dem baptise am at St James's Church, Piccadilly, as "John Stuart – a Black, aged 16 Years".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Quobna Ottobah Cugoano|url=https://www.sjp.org.uk/whats-on/quobna-ottobah-cugoano/|access-date=2023-08-21|website=SJP|language=en-US}}</ref> == Abolitionist == == Commemoration == == References == akmtr6y5of9skpc69j35xnhxg1r5lpk 63686 63574 2025-06-16T23:43:32Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63686 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ottobah Cugoano''' (c. 1757 – c. 1791), dem sanso know am as '''John Stuart''', na he be a British abolitionist den activist wey na dem born am insyd de [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] (modern-day [[Ghana]]). Na dem sell am into slavery at de age of thirteen wey na dem ship am to Grenada insyd de West Indies. Insyd 1772, na dem purchase am by a merchant wey take am to England, wer na Cugoano learn to read den write, wey na dem emancipate am. Eventually, na he start dey work give de artists Richard den Maria Cosway, wey cam be acquainted plus chaw prominent British political den cultural figures as a result. Na he join de Sons of Africa, a group of Black abolitionists insyd Britain, wey na he die at sam point after 1791.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bogues|first=Anthony|title=Black Heretics, Black Prophets: Radical Political Intellectuals|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|pages=25–46}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dahl |first=Adam |date=21 November 2019 |title=Creolizing Natural Liberty: Transnational Obligation in the Thought of Ottobah Cugoano |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/707400 |journal=The Journal of Politics |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=908–920 |doi=10.1086/707400 |issn=0022-3816 |s2cid=212865739 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Early life == Na dem born Quobna Ottobah Cugoano insyd 1757 insyd Agimaque (Ajumako) insyd de [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] (modern-day [[Ghana]]).<ref name="''The Signifying Monkey'', Henry Louis Gates, Jr2">[[Henry Louis Gates, Jr|Gates, Henry Louis]] (1988), ''[[The Signifying Monkey]]: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism'', Oxford University Press, pp. 146–47.</ref> Na dem born am into a [[Fante people|Fante]] family<ref name="''The Signifying Monkey'', Henry Louis Gates, Jr2" /> wey na ein family be close to de local chief. At de age of 13, na dem kidnap Cugoano plus a group of kiddies, [[Atlantic slave trade|dem sell into slavery]] wey na dem transport dem from [[Cape Coast]] on a slave ship to Grenada.<ref name="''The Signifying Monkey'', Henry Louis Gates, Jr2" /><ref name="Historic UK">{{Cite web|last=Brain|first=Jessica|date=July 28, 2021|title=The Sons of Africa|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Sons-Of-Africa/|access-date=February 20, 2025|website=Historic UK}}</ref> Na he work on a plantation insyd de Lesser Antilles til na dem purchase am insyd 1772 by Alexander Campbell, a Scottish plantation owner, wey take am into ein household. Late insyd 1772, na Campbell take am plus am on a visit to England wer na Cugoano be able make he secure ein freedom.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-02-14|title=Ottobah Cugoano|url=https://www.blackhistorymonth.org.uk/article/section/bhm-firsts/ottobah-cugoano/|access-date=2025-06-16|website=Black History Month 2025|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Alston2021">Alston, David (2021), ''Slaves and Highlanders: Silenced Histories of Scotland and the Caribbean'', [[Edinburgh University Press]], pp. 53 - 58, </ref> On 20 August 1773, na dem baptise am at St James's Church, Piccadilly, as "John Stuart – a Black, aged 16 Years".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Quobna Ottobah Cugoano|url=https://www.sjp.org.uk/whats-on/quobna-ottobah-cugoano/|access-date=2023-08-21|website=SJP|language=en-US}}</ref> == Abolitionist == == Commemoration == == References == <references /> == External links == ck9uf61klgrmm22jcnfuzec7o8xxq1j 63692 63686 2025-06-16T23:49:29Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 63692 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ottobah Cugoano''' (c. 1757 – c. 1791), dem sanso know am as '''John Stuart''', na he be a British abolitionist den activist wey na dem born am insyd de [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] (modern-day [[Ghana]]). Na dem sell am into slavery at de age of thirteen wey na dem ship am to Grenada insyd de West Indies. Insyd 1772, na dem purchase am by a merchant wey take am to England, wer na Cugoano learn to read den write, wey na dem emancipate am. Eventually, na he start dey work give de artists Richard den Maria Cosway, wey cam be acquainted plus chaw prominent British political den cultural figures as a result. Na he join de Sons of Africa, a group of Black abolitionists insyd Britain, wey na he die at sam point after 1791.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bogues|first=Anthony|title=Black Heretics, Black Prophets: Radical Political Intellectuals|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|pages=25–46}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dahl |first=Adam |date=21 November 2019 |title=Creolizing Natural Liberty: Transnational Obligation in the Thought of Ottobah Cugoano |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/707400 |journal=The Journal of Politics |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=908–920 |doi=10.1086/707400 |issn=0022-3816 |s2cid=212865739 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Early life == Na dem born Quobna Ottobah Cugoano insyd 1757 insyd Agimaque (Ajumako) insyd de [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] (modern-day [[Ghana]]).<ref name="''The Signifying Monkey'', Henry Louis Gates, Jr2">Gates, Henry Louis (1988), ''The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism'', Oxford University Press, pp. 146–47.</ref> Na dem born am into a [[Fante people|Fante]] family<ref name="''The Signifying Monkey'', Henry Louis Gates, Jr2" /> wey na ein family be close to de local chief. At de age of 13, na dem kidnap Cugoano plus a group of kiddies, [[Atlantic slave trade|dem sell into slavery]] wey na dem transport dem from [[Cape Coast]] on a slave ship to Grenada.<ref name="''The Signifying Monkey'', Henry Louis Gates, Jr2" /><ref name="Historic UK">{{Cite web|last=Brain|first=Jessica|date=July 28, 2021|title=The Sons of Africa|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Sons-Of-Africa/|access-date=February 20, 2025|website=Historic UK}}</ref> Na he work on a plantation insyd de Lesser Antilles til na dem purchase am insyd 1772 by Alexander Campbell, a Scottish plantation owner, wey take am into ein household. Late insyd 1772, na Campbell take am plus am on a visit to England wer na Cugoano be able make he secure ein freedom.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-02-14|title=Ottobah Cugoano|url=https://www.blackhistorymonth.org.uk/article/section/bhm-firsts/ottobah-cugoano/|access-date=2025-06-16|website=Black History Month 2025|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Alston2021">Alston, David (2021), ''Slaves and Highlanders: Silenced Histories of Scotland and the Caribbean'', Edinburgh University Press, pp. 53 - 58, </ref> On 20 August 1773, na dem baptise am at St James's Church, Piccadilly, as "John Stuart – a Black, aged 16 Years".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Quobna Ottobah Cugoano|url=https://www.sjp.org.uk/whats-on/quobna-ottobah-cugoano/|access-date=2023-08-21|website=SJP|language=en-US}}</ref> == Abolitionist == Insyd 1784, na dem employ Cugoano as a servant by de artists Richard Cosway den ein wifey, Maria.<ref name="Historic UK" /> Thru de Cosways, na he cam to de attention of leading British political den cultural figures of de time, wey dey include de poet William Blake den de Prince of Wales. Togeda plus [[Olaudah Equiano]] den oda educated Africans wey dey live insyd Britain, Cugoano cam be active insyd de Sons of Africa, an abolitionist group wey ein members frequently wrep to de newspapers of de day, wey dem dey condemn de practice of slavery. == Commemoration == == References == <references /> == External links == 4sh2eo59nf1f30w9w6l9ow4zs10zwr3 0 17251 63673 63130 2025-06-16T23:31:04Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295779001|Thabo Mbeki]]" 63673 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki''' (born on 18 june 1942)is a South African politician wey be president from 1999 to 2008. Him serve as di second president after dem fight for democracy. Him resign from office when him party, ANC, ask am to do so..<ref name="gcis-profile2004">{{Cite web|date=14 October 2004|title=Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki, Mr|url=http://www.info.gov.za/leaders/president/index.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070416053536/http://www.info.gov.za/leaders/president/index.htm|archive-date=16 April 2007|access-date=27 November 2007|website=Government Communication and Information System (GCIS)}}</ref>Before Mbeki become president, him be deputy president under Nelson Mandela from 1994 to 1999. Him work under Nelson Mandela before him take ower as president.<ref>{{Cite web|title=South Africa: Three decades, two ex-presidents, one election|url=https://www.theafricareport.com/346555/south-africa-three-decades-two-ex-presidents-one-election/}}</ref> Mbeki, wey be son of Govan Mbeki (ANC big thinker), dey involved for ANC politics since 1956 wen e join ANC Youth League. E become member of di party's National Executive Committee since 1975. Mbeki born for Transkei, e lef South Africa wen e be 20 years old go England go university. E spend almost 30 years outside till dem lift ban on ANC for 1990. E climb di ranks for ANC, especially for information and publicity section under Oliver Tambo. E also be experienced diplomat, e represent ANC for some African countries. Mbeki dey among di first ones wey advocate for diplomatic talks wey lead to negotiations to end apartheid. After South Africa's first democratic elections for 1994, dem appoint am as deputy president. Later on, e become clear say na im Nelson Mandela choose to succeed am, so dem elect am as ANC president for 1997 without any opposition. Dis one pave way for am to become president of South Africa after di 1999 elections as ANC candidate. [[Category:Living people]] pubp0s325j99aaiinyfi3ptu4phddn8 63674 63673 2025-06-16T23:32:42Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 i added a data box 63674 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki''' (born on 18 june 1942)is a South African politician wey be president from 1999 to 2008. Him serve as di second president after dem fight for democracy. Him resign from office when him party, ANC, ask am to do so..<ref name="gcis-profile2004">{{Cite web|date=14 October 2004|title=Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki, Mr|url=http://www.info.gov.za/leaders/president/index.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070416053536/http://www.info.gov.za/leaders/president/index.htm|archive-date=16 April 2007|access-date=27 November 2007|website=Government Communication and Information System (GCIS)}}</ref>Before Mbeki become president, him be deputy president under Nelson Mandela from 1994 to 1999. Him work under Nelson Mandela before him take ower as president.<ref>{{Cite web|title=South Africa: Three decades, two ex-presidents, one election|url=https://www.theafricareport.com/346555/south-africa-three-decades-two-ex-presidents-one-election/}}</ref> Mbeki, wey be son of Govan Mbeki (ANC big thinker), dey involved for ANC politics since 1956 wen e join ANC Youth League. E become member of di party's National Executive Committee since 1975. Mbeki born for Transkei, e lef South Africa wen e be 20 years old go England go university. E spend almost 30 years outside till dem lift ban on ANC for 1990. E climb di ranks for ANC, especially for information and publicity section under Oliver Tambo. E also be experienced diplomat, e represent ANC for some African countries. Mbeki dey among di first ones wey advocate for diplomatic talks wey lead to negotiations to end apartheid. After South Africa's first democratic elections for 1994, dem appoint am as deputy president. Later on, e become clear say na im Nelson Mandela choose to succeed am, so dem elect am as ANC president for 1997 without any opposition. Dis one pave way for am to become president of South Africa after di 1999 elections as ANC candidate. [[Category:Living people]] ib9bm4wyp5fa1xagb4yfdraufq842q0 0 17326 63419 63417 2025-06-16T12:18:06Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Release" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295734653|Olaudah Equiano]]" 63419 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Olaudah Equiano''' (/əˈlaʊdə/; c. 1745 – 31 March 1797), dem know am for chaw of ein life as '''Gustavus Vassa''' (/ˈvæsə/), na he be a writer den abolitionist. According to ein memoir, na he komot de village of Essaka insyd present day southern [[Nigeria]].<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na dem enslave as a kiddie insyd [[West Africa]], na dem [[Atlantic slave trade|ship am to de Caribbean]] wey na dem sell to a Royal Navy officer. Na dem sell amtwice more before na he purchase ein freedom insyd 1766. inEquiano be part of de abolitionist group de Sons of Africa, wey na ein members be Africans wey dey live insyd Britain. Na 1789 autobiography, ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano'', sell so well dat na dem publish nine editions during ein life wey na e help secure passage of de British Slave Trade Act 1807, wich na e abolish de slave trade.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofolaudahequ00equi|title=The Life of Olaudah Equiano, or, Gustavus Vassa, the African|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1999|isbn=978-0-486-40661-9|location=Mineola, NY}}</ref>''The Interesting Narrative'' gain renewed popularity among scholars insyd de late 20th century wey e remain a useful primary source.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{Cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref> == Early life den enslavement == According to ein 1789 memoir, na dem born Equiano around 1745 insyd de Igbo village of Essaka insyd wat now be southern Nigeria. Na he claim na ein home be part of de Kingdom of Benin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Equiano's World|url=https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422014125/https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|archive-date=22 April 2023|access-date=22 April 2023|website=www.equianosworld.org}}</ref> Na Equiano recount an incident of an attempted kidnapping of kiddies insyd ein Igbo village, wich na be foiled by adults. Wen na he be around de age of eleven, na dem lef he den ein sisto alone to look after dema family premises, as na ebe common wen adults go out of de house to work. Na dem kidnap dem wey na dem take dem far from dema home, na dem separate wey na dem sell dem to [[Slavery in Africa|slave traders]]. Na he try make he escape buh na dem thwart am. After ein owners change chaw times, na Equiano happen to meet plus ein sisto buh na dem san separate. Six anaa seven months after na he be kidnapped, he arrive at de coast wer na dem take am on board a European slave ship.<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GM6AAAAcAAJ|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano|publisher=Printed for, and sold by the author|year=2005|isbn=9781615362622}}</ref> Na dem transport am plus 244 oda enslaved Africans across de Atlantic Ocean to Barbados insyd de British West Indies. Na dem send he den a few oda slaves for sale insyd de Colony of Virginia. Na literary scholar Vincent Carretta argue insyd ein 2005 biography of Equiano say na de activist fi be born insyd colonial South Carolina rada dan Africa, based on a 1759 parish baptismal record wey dey list Equiano ein place of birth as Carolina den a 1773 ship ein muster wey dey indicate South Carolina.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="blackburn">[[Robin Blackburn]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704140459/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051121/blackburn/single "The True Story of Equiano"], ''[[The Nation]]'', 2 November 2005 (archived). Retrieved 28 September 2014 {{subscription required}}.</ref> Na Carretta ein conclusion be disputed by oda scholars wey believe de weight of evidence dey support Equiano ein account of coming from Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bugg, John |date=October 2006 |title=The Other Interesting Narrative: Olaudah Equiano's Public Book Tour |journal=PMLA |volume=121 |issue=5 |pages=1424–1442, esp. 1425 |doi=10.1632/pmla.2006.121.5.1424 |jstor=25501614 |s2cid=162237773}}</ref> Insyd Virginia, na Michael Henry Pascal buy Equiano, a lieutenant insyd de Royal Navy. Na Pascal rename de boy "Gustavus Vassa", after de 16th-century King of Sweden Gustav Vasa<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref> wey begin de Protestant Reformation insyd Sweden. Na dem already rename Equiano twice: na dem call am Michael while on board de slave ship wey na e bring am to de Americas, den Jacob by ein first owner. Dis time, na Equiano refuse wey na he flow ein new owner say he go prefer to be called Jacob. Ein refusal, he dey say, "na e gain me chaw a cuff" wey eventually na he submit to de new name.Na he use dis name for de rest of ein life, wey dey include on all official records; na he use Equiano insyd ein autobiography per.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na Pascal take Equiano plus am wen na he return to England wey na he make he accompany am as a valet during de Seven Years' War plus France (1756–1763). Na Equiano dey give witness reports of de Siege of Louisbourg (1758), de Battle of Lagos (1759) den de Capture of Belle Île (1761). Na dem sanso train am insyd seamanship, na dem dey expect Equiano make he assist de ship ein crew in times of battle; na ein duty be make he haul gunpowder to de gun decks. Na Pascal favour Equiano wey he send am to ein sister-in-law insyd Great Britain so dat he fi attend school den learn to read den write. Na Equiano convert to Christianity wey na dem baptise am at St Margaret's, Westminster, on 9 February 1759, wen na dem describe am insyd de parish register as "a Black, born insyd Carolina, 12 years old".<ref>[[David Dabydeen]], [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3 "Equiano the African: Biography of a Self-made Man by Vincent Carretta"] (book review), ''[[The Guardian]]'', 3 December 2005, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114202329/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3|date=14 November 2017}}. Retrieved 11 January 2018.</ref> Na ein godparents be Mary Guerin den ein bro, Maynard, wey na dem be cousins of ein master Pascal. Na dem take an interest insyd am wey na dem help am to learn English. Later, wen na dem question Equiano ein origins after na dem publish ein book, na de Guerins testify to ein lack of English wen na he first cam to London.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Insyd December 1762, na Pascal sell Equiano to Captain James Doran of de ''Charming Sally'' at Gravesend, from wer na dem transport am back to de Caribbean, to Montserrat, insyd de Leeward Islands. Der, na dem sell am to Robert King, an American Quaker merchant wey komot Philadelphia wey trade insyd de Caribbean.<ref>{{cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African|year=1790}}</ref> == Release == [[File:Bahama_Banks_1767_RMG_PU6489.jpg|thumb|Na de wrecking of de ''Nancy'' on de Bahama Banks insys 1767, from ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African'']] Na Robert King force Equiano make he work on ein shipping routes den insyd ein stores. Insyd 1765, wen na Equiano dey about 20 years old, na King promise dat for ein purchase price of 40 pounds (equivalent to £6,900 insyd 2023) he fi buy ein freedom.<ref name="Walvin2000">{{Cite book|last=Walvin|first=James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwv0y3PUuVAC|title=An African's Life: The Life and Times of Olaudah Equiano, 1745–1797|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8264-4704-3|page=71}}</ref> Na King teach am to read den wrep more fluently, wey he guide am along de path of religion, wey na he allow Equiano make he engage insyd profitable trading for ein own account, as well as on ein owner ein behalf. Na Equiano sell fruits, glass tumblers den oda items between Georgia den de Caribbean islands. Na King allow Equiano make he buy ein freedom, wich na he achieve insyd 1766. Na de merchant urge Equiano make he stay on as a business partner. However, na Equiano find am dangerous den limiting make he remain insyd de British colonies as a freedman. While loading a ship insyd Georgia, na dem almost kidnap am back into enslavement. b7xowcn9jyr59rscgl37d7wcvmm5l6x 63431 63419 2025-06-16T13:33:38Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Freedom" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295734653|Olaudah Equiano]]" 63431 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Olaudah Equiano''' (/əˈlaʊdə/; c. 1745 – 31 March 1797), dem know am for chaw of ein life as '''Gustavus Vassa''' (/ˈvæsə/), na he be a writer den abolitionist. According to ein memoir, na he komot de village of Essaka insyd present day southern [[Nigeria]].<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na dem enslave as a kiddie insyd [[West Africa]], na dem [[Atlantic slave trade|ship am to de Caribbean]] wey na dem sell to a Royal Navy officer. Na dem sell amtwice more before na he purchase ein freedom insyd 1766. inEquiano be part of de abolitionist group de Sons of Africa, wey na ein members be Africans wey dey live insyd Britain. Na 1789 autobiography, ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano'', sell so well dat na dem publish nine editions during ein life wey na e help secure passage of de British Slave Trade Act 1807, wich na e abolish de slave trade.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofolaudahequ00equi|title=The Life of Olaudah Equiano, or, Gustavus Vassa, the African|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1999|isbn=978-0-486-40661-9|location=Mineola, NY}}</ref>''The Interesting Narrative'' gain renewed popularity among scholars insyd de late 20th century wey e remain a useful primary source.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{Cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref> == Early life den enslavement == According to ein 1789 memoir, na dem born Equiano around 1745 insyd de Igbo village of Essaka insyd wat now be southern Nigeria. Na he claim na ein home be part of de Kingdom of Benin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Equiano's World|url=https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422014125/https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|archive-date=22 April 2023|access-date=22 April 2023|website=www.equianosworld.org}}</ref> Na Equiano recount an incident of an attempted kidnapping of kiddies insyd ein Igbo village, wich na be foiled by adults. Wen na he be around de age of eleven, na dem lef he den ein sisto alone to look after dema family premises, as na ebe common wen adults go out of de house to work. Na dem kidnap dem wey na dem take dem far from dema home, na dem separate wey na dem sell dem to [[Slavery in Africa|slave traders]]. Na he try make he escape buh na dem thwart am. After ein owners change chaw times, na Equiano happen to meet plus ein sisto buh na dem san separate. Six anaa seven months after na he be kidnapped, he arrive at de coast wer na dem take am on board a European slave ship.<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GM6AAAAcAAJ|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano|publisher=Printed for, and sold by the author|year=2005|isbn=9781615362622}}</ref> Na dem transport am plus 244 oda enslaved Africans across de Atlantic Ocean to Barbados insyd de British West Indies. Na dem send he den a few oda slaves for sale insyd de Colony of Virginia. Na literary scholar Vincent Carretta argue insyd ein 2005 biography of Equiano say na de activist fi be born insyd colonial South Carolina rada dan Africa, based on a 1759 parish baptismal record wey dey list Equiano ein place of birth as Carolina den a 1773 ship ein muster wey dey indicate South Carolina.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="blackburn">[[Robin Blackburn]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704140459/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051121/blackburn/single "The True Story of Equiano"], ''[[The Nation]]'', 2 November 2005 (archived). Retrieved 28 September 2014 {{subscription required}}.</ref> Na Carretta ein conclusion be disputed by oda scholars wey believe de weight of evidence dey support Equiano ein account of coming from Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bugg, John |date=October 2006 |title=The Other Interesting Narrative: Olaudah Equiano's Public Book Tour |journal=PMLA |volume=121 |issue=5 |pages=1424–1442, esp. 1425 |doi=10.1632/pmla.2006.121.5.1424 |jstor=25501614 |s2cid=162237773}}</ref> Insyd Virginia, na Michael Henry Pascal buy Equiano, a lieutenant insyd de Royal Navy. Na Pascal rename de boy "Gustavus Vassa", after de 16th-century King of Sweden Gustav Vasa<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref> wey begin de Protestant Reformation insyd Sweden. Na dem already rename Equiano twice: na dem call am Michael while on board de slave ship wey na e bring am to de Americas, den Jacob by ein first owner. Dis time, na Equiano refuse wey na he flow ein new owner say he go prefer to be called Jacob. Ein refusal, he dey say, "na e gain me chaw a cuff" wey eventually na he submit to de new name.Na he use dis name for de rest of ein life, wey dey include on all official records; na he use Equiano insyd ein autobiography per.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na Pascal take Equiano plus am wen na he return to England wey na he make he accompany am as a valet during de Seven Years' War plus France (1756–1763). Na Equiano dey give witness reports of de Siege of Louisbourg (1758), de Battle of Lagos (1759) den de Capture of Belle Île (1761). Na dem sanso train am insyd seamanship, na dem dey expect Equiano make he assist de ship ein crew in times of battle; na ein duty be make he haul gunpowder to de gun decks. Na Pascal favour Equiano wey he send am to ein sister-in-law insyd Great Britain so dat he fi attend school den learn to read den write. Na Equiano convert to Christianity wey na dem baptise am at St Margaret's, Westminster, on 9 February 1759, wen na dem describe am insyd de parish register as "a Black, born insyd Carolina, 12 years old".<ref>[[David Dabydeen]], [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3 "Equiano the African: Biography of a Self-made Man by Vincent Carretta"] (book review), ''[[The Guardian]]'', 3 December 2005, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114202329/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3|date=14 November 2017}}. Retrieved 11 January 2018.</ref> Na ein godparents be Mary Guerin den ein bro, Maynard, wey na dem be cousins of ein master Pascal. Na dem take an interest insyd am wey na dem help am to learn English. Later, wen na dem question Equiano ein origins after na dem publish ein book, na de Guerins testify to ein lack of English wen na he first cam to London.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Insyd December 1762, na Pascal sell Equiano to Captain James Doran of de ''Charming Sally'' at Gravesend, from wer na dem transport am back to de Caribbean, to Montserrat, insyd de Leeward Islands. Der, na dem sell am to Robert King, an American Quaker merchant wey komot Philadelphia wey trade insyd de Caribbean.<ref>{{cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African|year=1790}}</ref> == Release == [[File:Bahama_Banks_1767_RMG_PU6489.jpg|thumb|Na de wrecking of de ''Nancy'' on de Bahama Banks insys 1767, from ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African'']] Na Robert King force Equiano make he work on ein shipping routes den insyd ein stores. Insyd 1765, wen na Equiano dey about 20 years old, na King promise dat for ein purchase price of 40 pounds (equivalent to £6,900 insyd 2023) he fi buy ein freedom.<ref name="Walvin2000">{{Cite book|last=Walvin|first=James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwv0y3PUuVAC|title=An African's Life: The Life and Times of Olaudah Equiano, 1745–1797|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8264-4704-3|page=71}}</ref> Na King teach am to read den wrep more fluently, wey he guide am along de path of religion, wey na he allow Equiano make he engage insyd profitable trading for ein own account, as well as on ein owner ein behalf. Na Equiano sell fruits, glass tumblers den oda items between Georgia den de Caribbean islands. Na King allow Equiano make he buy ein freedom, wich na he achieve insyd 1766. Na de merchant urge Equiano make he stay on as a business partner. However, na Equiano find am dangerous den limiting make he remain insyd de British colonies as a freedman. While loading a ship insyd Georgia, na dem almost kidnap am back into enslavement. == Freedom == By about 1768, na Equiano go Britain. Na he continue to work at sea, wey na he dey travel sometimes as a deckhand based insyd England. Insyd 1773 on de Royal Navy ship HMS ''Racehorse'', na he travel to de Arctic insyd an expedition towards de North Pole.<ref name="chambers">[http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13855 Douglas Chambers, "'Almost an Englishman': Carretta's Equiano"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008081910/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13855|date=8 October 2014}}, H-Net Reviews, November 2007. Retrieved 28 September 2014.</ref> On dat voyage na he work plus Dr Charles Irving, wey ha develop a process to distill seawater den later make a fortune from am. Two years later, na Irving recruit Equiano for a project on de Mosquito Coast insyd Central America, wer na he for use ein African background to help select slaves den manage dem as labourers on sugar-cane plantations. Na Irving den Equiano get a working relationship den friendship for more dan a decade, buh na de plantation venture fail.<ref name="lovejoy332">Lovejoy (2006), p. 332.</ref> Na Equiano meet plus George, de "Musquito king ein son". Na Equiano lef de Mosquito Coast insyd 1776 wey na he arrive at Plymouth, England, on 7 January 1777. poi0o74tdappjm0787usgtz22hqnvhj 63435 63431 2025-06-16T13:43:25Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Pioneer of the abolitionist cause" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295734653|Olaudah Equiano]]" 63435 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Olaudah Equiano''' (/əˈlaʊdə/; c. 1745 – 31 March 1797), dem know am for chaw of ein life as '''Gustavus Vassa''' (/ˈvæsə/), na he be a writer den abolitionist. According to ein memoir, na he komot de village of Essaka insyd present day southern [[Nigeria]].<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na dem enslave as a kiddie insyd [[West Africa]], na dem [[Atlantic slave trade|ship am to de Caribbean]] wey na dem sell to a Royal Navy officer. Na dem sell amtwice more before na he purchase ein freedom insyd 1766. inEquiano be part of de abolitionist group de Sons of Africa, wey na ein members be Africans wey dey live insyd Britain. Na 1789 autobiography, ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano'', sell so well dat na dem publish nine editions during ein life wey na e help secure passage of de British Slave Trade Act 1807, wich na e abolish de slave trade.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofolaudahequ00equi|title=The Life of Olaudah Equiano, or, Gustavus Vassa, the African|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1999|isbn=978-0-486-40661-9|location=Mineola, NY}}</ref>''The Interesting Narrative'' gain renewed popularity among scholars insyd de late 20th century wey e remain a useful primary source.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{Cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref> == Early life den enslavement == According to ein 1789 memoir, na dem born Equiano around 1745 insyd de Igbo village of Essaka insyd wat now be southern Nigeria. Na he claim na ein home be part of de Kingdom of Benin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Equiano's World|url=https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422014125/https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|archive-date=22 April 2023|access-date=22 April 2023|website=www.equianosworld.org}}</ref> Na Equiano recount an incident of an attempted kidnapping of kiddies insyd ein Igbo village, wich na be foiled by adults. Wen na he be around de age of eleven, na dem lef he den ein sisto alone to look after dema family premises, as na ebe common wen adults go out of de house to work. Na dem kidnap dem wey na dem take dem far from dema home, na dem separate wey na dem sell dem to [[Slavery in Africa|slave traders]]. Na he try make he escape buh na dem thwart am. After ein owners change chaw times, na Equiano happen to meet plus ein sisto buh na dem san separate. Six anaa seven months after na he be kidnapped, he arrive at de coast wer na dem take am on board a European slave ship.<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GM6AAAAcAAJ|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano|publisher=Printed for, and sold by the author|year=2005|isbn=9781615362622}}</ref> Na dem transport am plus 244 oda enslaved Africans across de Atlantic Ocean to Barbados insyd de British West Indies. Na dem send he den a few oda slaves for sale insyd de Colony of Virginia. Na literary scholar Vincent Carretta argue insyd ein 2005 biography of Equiano say na de activist fi be born insyd colonial South Carolina rada dan Africa, based on a 1759 parish baptismal record wey dey list Equiano ein place of birth as Carolina den a 1773 ship ein muster wey dey indicate South Carolina.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="blackburn">[[Robin Blackburn]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704140459/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051121/blackburn/single "The True Story of Equiano"], ''[[The Nation]]'', 2 November 2005 (archived). Retrieved 28 September 2014 {{subscription required}}.</ref> Na Carretta ein conclusion be disputed by oda scholars wey believe de weight of evidence dey support Equiano ein account of coming from Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bugg, John |date=October 2006 |title=The Other Interesting Narrative: Olaudah Equiano's Public Book Tour |journal=PMLA |volume=121 |issue=5 |pages=1424–1442, esp. 1425 |doi=10.1632/pmla.2006.121.5.1424 |jstor=25501614 |s2cid=162237773}}</ref> Insyd Virginia, na Michael Henry Pascal buy Equiano, a lieutenant insyd de Royal Navy. Na Pascal rename de boy "Gustavus Vassa", after de 16th-century King of Sweden Gustav Vasa<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref> wey begin de Protestant Reformation insyd Sweden. Na dem already rename Equiano twice: na dem call am Michael while on board de slave ship wey na e bring am to de Americas, den Jacob by ein first owner. Dis time, na Equiano refuse wey na he flow ein new owner say he go prefer to be called Jacob. Ein refusal, he dey say, "na e gain me chaw a cuff" wey eventually na he submit to de new name.Na he use dis name for de rest of ein life, wey dey include on all official records; na he use Equiano insyd ein autobiography per.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na Pascal take Equiano plus am wen na he return to England wey na he make he accompany am as a valet during de Seven Years' War plus France (1756–1763). Na Equiano dey give witness reports of de Siege of Louisbourg (1758), de Battle of Lagos (1759) den de Capture of Belle Île (1761). Na dem sanso train am insyd seamanship, na dem dey expect Equiano make he assist de ship ein crew in times of battle; na ein duty be make he haul gunpowder to de gun decks. Na Pascal favour Equiano wey he send am to ein sister-in-law insyd Great Britain so dat he fi attend school den learn to read den write. Na Equiano convert to Christianity wey na dem baptise am at St Margaret's, Westminster, on 9 February 1759, wen na dem describe am insyd de parish register as "a Black, born insyd Carolina, 12 years old".<ref>[[David Dabydeen]], [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3 "Equiano the African: Biography of a Self-made Man by Vincent Carretta"] (book review), ''[[The Guardian]]'', 3 December 2005, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114202329/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3|date=14 November 2017}}. Retrieved 11 January 2018.</ref> Na ein godparents be Mary Guerin den ein bro, Maynard, wey na dem be cousins of ein master Pascal. Na dem take an interest insyd am wey na dem help am to learn English. Later, wen na dem question Equiano ein origins after na dem publish ein book, na de Guerins testify to ein lack of English wen na he first cam to London.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Insyd December 1762, na Pascal sell Equiano to Captain James Doran of de ''Charming Sally'' at Gravesend, from wer na dem transport am back to de Caribbean, to Montserrat, insyd de Leeward Islands. Der, na dem sell am to Robert King, an American Quaker merchant wey komot Philadelphia wey trade insyd de Caribbean.<ref>{{cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African|year=1790}}</ref> == Release == [[File:Bahama_Banks_1767_RMG_PU6489.jpg|thumb|Na de wrecking of de ''Nancy'' on de Bahama Banks insys 1767, from ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African'']] Na Robert King force Equiano make he work on ein shipping routes den insyd ein stores. Insyd 1765, wen na Equiano dey about 20 years old, na King promise dat for ein purchase price of 40 pounds (equivalent to £6,900 insyd 2023) he fi buy ein freedom.<ref name="Walvin2000">{{Cite book|last=Walvin|first=James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwv0y3PUuVAC|title=An African's Life: The Life and Times of Olaudah Equiano, 1745–1797|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8264-4704-3|page=71}}</ref> Na King teach am to read den wrep more fluently, wey he guide am along de path of religion, wey na he allow Equiano make he engage insyd profitable trading for ein own account, as well as on ein owner ein behalf. Na Equiano sell fruits, glass tumblers den oda items between Georgia den de Caribbean islands. Na King allow Equiano make he buy ein freedom, wich na he achieve insyd 1766. Na de merchant urge Equiano make he stay on as a business partner. However, na Equiano find am dangerous den limiting make he remain insyd de British colonies as a freedman. While loading a ship insyd Georgia, na dem almost kidnap am back into enslavement. == Freedom == By about 1768, na Equiano go Britain. Na he continue to work at sea, wey na he dey travel sometimes as a deckhand based insyd England. Insyd 1773 on de Royal Navy ship HMS ''Racehorse'', na he travel to de Arctic insyd an expedition towards de North Pole.<ref name="chambers">[http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13855 Douglas Chambers, "'Almost an Englishman': Carretta's Equiano"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008081910/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13855|date=8 October 2014}}, H-Net Reviews, November 2007. Retrieved 28 September 2014.</ref> On dat voyage na he work plus Dr Charles Irving, wey ha develop a process to distill seawater den later make a fortune from am. Two years later, na Irving recruit Equiano for a project on de Mosquito Coast insyd Central America, wer na he for use ein African background to help select slaves den manage dem as labourers on sugar-cane plantations. Na Irving den Equiano get a working relationship den friendship for more dan a decade, buh na de plantation venture fail.<ref name="lovejoy332">Lovejoy (2006), p. 332.</ref> Na Equiano meet plus George, de "Musquito king ein son". Na Equiano lef de Mosquito Coast insyd 1776 wey na he arrive at Plymouth, England, on 7 January 1777. == Pioneer of de abolitionist cause == Na Equiano settle insyd London, wer na insyd de 1780s he cam be involved insyd de abolitionist movement.<ref name="HistoricUK">{{Cite web|last=Brain|first=Jessica|date=July 28, 2021|title=The Sons of Africa|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Sons-Of-Africa/|access-date=February 19, 2025|website=Historic UK}}</ref> Na de movement to end de slave trade particularly be strong among Quakers, buh na dem found de Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade insyd 1787 as a non-denominational group, plus Anglican members, in an attempt make dem influence parliament directly. Under de Test Act, na those wey prepare per to receive de sacrament of de Lord's Supper according to de rites of de Church of England be permitted to serve as MPs. Na Equiano be influenced by George Whitefield ein evangelism. As early as 1783, na Equiano inform abolitionists such as Granville Sharp about de slave trade; na det year he be de first to tell Sharp about de ''Zong'' massacre, wich na dem try am insyd London as litigation for insurance claims. Na e cam be a ''cause célèbre'' give de abolitionist movement wey e contribute to ein growth.<ref name="lovejoy">[http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Paul E. Lovejoy, "Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African"] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095849/http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Archived] 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, ''Slavery and Abolition'' 27, no. 3 (2006): 317–347.</ref> On 21 October 1785 na he be one of eight delegates from Africans insyd America to present an 'Address of Thanks' to de Quakers at a meeting insyd Gracechurch Street, London. Na de address refer to ''A Caution to Great Britain and her Colonies'' by Anthony Benezet, founder of de Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage.<ref>{{cite news|title=Chelmsford|newspaper=Chelmsford Chronicle|date=5 May 1786|page=3}}</ref> Na Equiano befriended wey be supported by abolitionists, na chaw encourage am make he wrep den publish ein life story. Na he be supported financially insyd dis effort by philanthropic abolitionists den religious benefactors. Na dem promote ein lectures den preparation for de book by, among odas, Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon. 6bl763ldplmztiuhe2gn6eg0w989akn 63436 63435 2025-06-16T14:07:27Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Memoir" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295734653|Olaudah Equiano]]" 63436 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Olaudah Equiano''' (/əˈlaʊdə/; c. 1745 – 31 March 1797), dem know am for chaw of ein life as '''Gustavus Vassa''' (/ˈvæsə/), na he be a writer den abolitionist. According to ein memoir, na he komot de village of Essaka insyd present day southern [[Nigeria]].<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na dem enslave as a kiddie insyd [[West Africa]], na dem [[Atlantic slave trade|ship am to de Caribbean]] wey na dem sell to a Royal Navy officer. Na dem sell amtwice more before na he purchase ein freedom insyd 1766. inEquiano be part of de abolitionist group de Sons of Africa, wey na ein members be Africans wey dey live insyd Britain. Na 1789 autobiography, ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano'', sell so well dat na dem publish nine editions during ein life wey na e help secure passage of de British Slave Trade Act 1807, wich na e abolish de slave trade.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofolaudahequ00equi|title=The Life of Olaudah Equiano, or, Gustavus Vassa, the African|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1999|isbn=978-0-486-40661-9|location=Mineola, NY}}</ref>''The Interesting Narrative'' gain renewed popularity among scholars insyd de late 20th century wey e remain a useful primary source.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{Cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref> == Early life den enslavement == According to ein 1789 memoir, na dem born Equiano around 1745 insyd de Igbo village of Essaka insyd wat now be southern Nigeria. Na he claim na ein home be part of de Kingdom of Benin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Equiano's World|url=https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422014125/https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|archive-date=22 April 2023|access-date=22 April 2023|website=www.equianosworld.org}}</ref> Na Equiano recount an incident of an attempted kidnapping of kiddies insyd ein Igbo village, wich na be foiled by adults. Wen na he be around de age of eleven, na dem lef he den ein sisto alone to look after dema family premises, as na ebe common wen adults go out of de house to work. Na dem kidnap dem wey na dem take dem far from dema home, na dem separate wey na dem sell dem to [[Slavery in Africa|slave traders]]. Na he try make he escape buh na dem thwart am. After ein owners change chaw times, na Equiano happen to meet plus ein sisto buh na dem san separate. Six anaa seven months after na he be kidnapped, he arrive at de coast wer na dem take am on board a European slave ship.<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GM6AAAAcAAJ|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano|publisher=Printed for, and sold by the author|year=2005|isbn=9781615362622}}</ref> Na dem transport am plus 244 oda enslaved Africans across de Atlantic Ocean to Barbados insyd de British West Indies. Na dem send he den a few oda slaves for sale insyd de Colony of Virginia. Na literary scholar Vincent Carretta argue insyd ein 2005 biography of Equiano say na de activist fi be born insyd colonial South Carolina rada dan Africa, based on a 1759 parish baptismal record wey dey list Equiano ein place of birth as Carolina den a 1773 ship ein muster wey dey indicate South Carolina.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="blackburn">[[Robin Blackburn]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704140459/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051121/blackburn/single "The True Story of Equiano"], ''[[The Nation]]'', 2 November 2005 (archived). Retrieved 28 September 2014 {{subscription required}}.</ref> Na Carretta ein conclusion be disputed by oda scholars wey believe de weight of evidence dey support Equiano ein account of coming from Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bugg, John |date=October 2006 |title=The Other Interesting Narrative: Olaudah Equiano's Public Book Tour |journal=PMLA |volume=121 |issue=5 |pages=1424–1442, esp. 1425 |doi=10.1632/pmla.2006.121.5.1424 |jstor=25501614 |s2cid=162237773}}</ref> Insyd Virginia, na Michael Henry Pascal buy Equiano, a lieutenant insyd de Royal Navy. Na Pascal rename de boy "Gustavus Vassa", after de 16th-century King of Sweden Gustav Vasa<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref> wey begin de Protestant Reformation insyd Sweden. Na dem already rename Equiano twice: na dem call am Michael while on board de slave ship wey na e bring am to de Americas, den Jacob by ein first owner. Dis time, na Equiano refuse wey na he flow ein new owner say he go prefer to be called Jacob. Ein refusal, he dey say, "na e gain me chaw a cuff" wey eventually na he submit to de new name.Na he use dis name for de rest of ein life, wey dey include on all official records; na he use Equiano insyd ein autobiography per.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na Pascal take Equiano plus am wen na he return to England wey na he make he accompany am as a valet during de Seven Years' War plus France (1756–1763). Na Equiano dey give witness reports of de Siege of Louisbourg (1758), de Battle of Lagos (1759) den de Capture of Belle Île (1761). Na dem sanso train am insyd seamanship, na dem dey expect Equiano make he assist de ship ein crew in times of battle; na ein duty be make he haul gunpowder to de gun decks. Na Pascal favour Equiano wey he send am to ein sister-in-law insyd Great Britain so dat he fi attend school den learn to read den write. Na Equiano convert to Christianity wey na dem baptise am at St Margaret's, Westminster, on 9 February 1759, wen na dem describe am insyd de parish register as "a Black, born insyd Carolina, 12 years old".<ref>[[David Dabydeen]], [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3 "Equiano the African: Biography of a Self-made Man by Vincent Carretta"] (book review), ''[[The Guardian]]'', 3 December 2005, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114202329/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3|date=14 November 2017}}. Retrieved 11 January 2018.</ref> Na ein godparents be Mary Guerin den ein bro, Maynard, wey na dem be cousins of ein master Pascal. Na dem take an interest insyd am wey na dem help am to learn English. Later, wen na dem question Equiano ein origins after na dem publish ein book, na de Guerins testify to ein lack of English wen na he first cam to London.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Insyd December 1762, na Pascal sell Equiano to Captain James Doran of de ''Charming Sally'' at Gravesend, from wer na dem transport am back to de Caribbean, to Montserrat, insyd de Leeward Islands. Der, na dem sell am to Robert King, an American Quaker merchant wey komot Philadelphia wey trade insyd de Caribbean.<ref>{{cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African|year=1790}}</ref> == Release == [[File:Bahama_Banks_1767_RMG_PU6489.jpg|thumb|Na de wrecking of de ''Nancy'' on de Bahama Banks insys 1767, from ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African'']] Na Robert King force Equiano make he work on ein shipping routes den insyd ein stores. Insyd 1765, wen na Equiano dey about 20 years old, na King promise dat for ein purchase price of 40 pounds (equivalent to £6,900 insyd 2023) he fi buy ein freedom.<ref name="Walvin2000">{{Cite book|last=Walvin|first=James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwv0y3PUuVAC|title=An African's Life: The Life and Times of Olaudah Equiano, 1745–1797|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8264-4704-3|page=71}}</ref> Na King teach am to read den wrep more fluently, wey he guide am along de path of religion, wey na he allow Equiano make he engage insyd profitable trading for ein own account, as well as on ein owner ein behalf. Na Equiano sell fruits, glass tumblers den oda items between Georgia den de Caribbean islands. Na King allow Equiano make he buy ein freedom, wich na he achieve insyd 1766. Na de merchant urge Equiano make he stay on as a business partner. However, na Equiano find am dangerous den limiting make he remain insyd de British colonies as a freedman. While loading a ship insyd Georgia, na dem almost kidnap am back into enslavement. == Freedom == By about 1768, na Equiano go Britain. Na he continue to work at sea, wey na he dey travel sometimes as a deckhand based insyd England. Insyd 1773 on de Royal Navy ship HMS ''Racehorse'', na he travel to de Arctic insyd an expedition towards de North Pole.<ref name="chambers">[http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13855 Douglas Chambers, "'Almost an Englishman': Carretta's Equiano"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008081910/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13855|date=8 October 2014}}, H-Net Reviews, November 2007. Retrieved 28 September 2014.</ref> On dat voyage na he work plus Dr Charles Irving, wey ha develop a process to distill seawater den later make a fortune from am. Two years later, na Irving recruit Equiano for a project on de Mosquito Coast insyd Central America, wer na he for use ein African background to help select slaves den manage dem as labourers on sugar-cane plantations. Na Irving den Equiano get a working relationship den friendship for more dan a decade, buh na de plantation venture fail.<ref name="lovejoy332">Lovejoy (2006), p. 332.</ref> Na Equiano meet plus George, de "Musquito king ein son". Na Equiano lef de Mosquito Coast insyd 1776 wey na he arrive at Plymouth, England, on 7 January 1777. == Pioneer of de abolitionist cause == Na Equiano settle insyd London, wer na insyd de 1780s he cam be involved insyd de abolitionist movement.<ref name="HistoricUK">{{Cite web|last=Brain|first=Jessica|date=July 28, 2021|title=The Sons of Africa|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Sons-Of-Africa/|access-date=February 19, 2025|website=Historic UK}}</ref> Na de movement to end de slave trade particularly be strong among Quakers, buh na dem found de Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade insyd 1787 as a non-denominational group, plus Anglican members, in an attempt make dem influence parliament directly. Under de Test Act, na those wey prepare per to receive de sacrament of de Lord's Supper according to de rites of de Church of England be permitted to serve as MPs. Na Equiano be influenced by George Whitefield ein evangelism. As early as 1783, na Equiano inform abolitionists such as Granville Sharp about de slave trade; na det year he be de first to tell Sharp about de ''Zong'' massacre, wich na dem try am insyd London as litigation for insurance claims. Na e cam be a ''cause célèbre'' give de abolitionist movement wey e contribute to ein growth.<ref name="lovejoy">[http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Paul E. Lovejoy, "Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African"] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095849/http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Archived] 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, ''Slavery and Abolition'' 27, no. 3 (2006): 317–347.</ref> On 21 October 1785 na he be one of eight delegates from Africans insyd America to present an 'Address of Thanks' to de Quakers at a meeting insyd Gracechurch Street, London. Na de address refer to ''A Caution to Great Britain and her Colonies'' by Anthony Benezet, founder of de Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage.<ref>{{cite news|title=Chelmsford|newspaper=Chelmsford Chronicle|date=5 May 1786|page=3}}</ref> Na Equiano befriended wey be supported by abolitionists, na chaw encourage am make he wrep den publish ein life story. Na he be supported financially insyd dis effort by philanthropic abolitionists den religious benefactors. Na dem promote ein lectures den preparation for de book by, among odas, Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon. == Memoir == [[File:Olaudah_Equiano_plaque_at_Charles_Bell_House,_UCL,_Riding_House_Street.JPG|thumb|Plaque at Riding House Street, Westminster, wey dey note de place wer na Equiano live den publish ein narrative]] He entitle ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African'' (1789), na de book go thru nine editions insyd ein lifetime, plus translations into Russian, German den Dutch.<ref name="HistoricUK">{{Cite web|last=Brain|first=Jessica|date=July 28, 2021|title=The Sons of Africa|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Sons-Of-Africa/|access-date=February 19, 2025|website=Historic UK}}</ref> E be one of de earliest-known examples of published writing by an African writer to be widely read insyd England. By 1792, na e be a best seller wey e be published insyd Russia, Germany, Holland den de United States. Na e be de first influential slave narrative of wat na cam be a large literary genre. Buh na Equiano ein experience insyd slavery be quite different from dat of chaw slaves; na he no participate insyd field work, he serve ein owners personally wey na he go to sea, na dem teach am to read den write, wey na he work insyd trading.<ref name="lovejoy">[http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Paul E. Lovejoy, "Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095849/http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf|date=4 March 2016}}, ''Slavery and Abolition'' 27, no. 3 (2006): 317–347.</ref> Na Equiano ein personal account of slavery, ein journey of advancement, den ein experiences as a black immigrant cause a sensation on publication. Na de book fuel a growing anti-slavery movement insyd Great Britain, Europe den de New World.<ref>Kamille Stone Stanton and Julie A. Chappell (eds), ''Transatlantic Literature in the Long Eighteenth Century'', Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2011.</ref> Ein account surprise chaw plus de quality of ein imagery, description den literary style. Insy ein account, na Equiano dey give details about ein hometown den de laws den customs of de Eboe people. After na dem capture am as a boy, he describe communities na he pass thru as a captive on ein way to de coast. Na ein biography dey detail ein voyage on a slave ship den de brutality of slavery insyd de colonies of de West Indies, Virginia den Georgia. Na Equiano comment on de reduced rights wey na freed people of colour get insyd dese same places, wey na dem sanso face risks of kidnapping den enslavement. Na Equiano embrace Christianity at de age of 14 den ein importance to am be a recurring theme insyd ein autobiography. Na dem baptise am into de Church of England insyd 1759; na he describe einself insyd ein autobiography as a "protestant of de church of England" buh na he sanso flirt plus Methodism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hinds |first=Elizabeth Jane Wall |date=Winter 1998 |title=The Spirit of Trade: Olaudah Equiano's Conversion, Legalism, and the Merchant's Life |journal=African American Review |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=635–647 |doi=10.2307/2901242 |jstor=2901242}}</ref> Na chaw events insyd Equiano ein life lead am make he question ein faith. Na he be distressed insyd 1774 by de kidnapping of ein paddie, a black cook dem name John Annis. Na Annis den ein former enslaver, William Kirkpatrick, initially na dem "part by consent" buh na Kirkpatrick renege, wey na he dey seek to kidnap den re-enslave Annis. Na Kirkpatrick ultimately be successful, wey na he forcibly remove Annis from de British ship ''Anglicania'' wer na both he den Equiano serve.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself|date=|publisher=|year=1789|isbn=|editor-last=|editor-first=|edition=|series=|location=London, UK|pages=189–207}}</ref> Na dis be in violation of de decision insyd de Somersett Case (1772), dat dem no fi take slaves from England widout dema permission, as na common law no dey support de institution insyd England & Wales. Na Kirkpatrick make dem transport Annis to Saint Kitts, wer na dem punish am severely wey na he work as a plantation labourer til he die. Plus de aid of Granville Sharp, na Equiano try make he get Annis released before na dem ship am from England buh na he be unsuccessful. Na he hear dat na Annis no be free from suffering til he die insyd slavery.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Excerpt from Chap. 10, ''An Interesting Narrative''.|url=http://www.brycchancarey.com/equiano/extract6.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202195424/http://www.brycchancarey.com/equiano/extract6.htm|archive-date=2 February 2014|access-date=28 January 2014}}</ref> Despite ein questioning, he dey affirm ein faith insyd Christianity, as seen insyd de penultimate sentence of ein work wey dey quote de prophet Micah (Micah 6:8): "''After all, what makes any event important, unless by its observation we become better and wiser, and learn 'to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly before God?'' diwrvl5uuhk5kawrgzyl1ono9ii92f4 63456 63436 2025-06-16T15:48:05Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Later years, radical connections" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295734653|Olaudah Equiano]]" 63456 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Olaudah Equiano''' (/əˈlaʊdə/; c. 1745 – 31 March 1797), dem know am for chaw of ein life as '''Gustavus Vassa''' (/ˈvæsə/), na he be a writer den abolitionist. According to ein memoir, na he komot de village of Essaka insyd present day southern [[Nigeria]].<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na dem enslave as a kiddie insyd [[West Africa]], na dem [[Atlantic slave trade|ship am to de Caribbean]] wey na dem sell to a Royal Navy officer. Na dem sell amtwice more before na he purchase ein freedom insyd 1766. inEquiano be part of de abolitionist group de Sons of Africa, wey na ein members be Africans wey dey live insyd Britain. Na 1789 autobiography, ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano'', sell so well dat na dem publish nine editions during ein life wey na e help secure passage of de British Slave Trade Act 1807, wich na e abolish de slave trade.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofolaudahequ00equi|title=The Life of Olaudah Equiano, or, Gustavus Vassa, the African|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1999|isbn=978-0-486-40661-9|location=Mineola, NY}}</ref>''The Interesting Narrative'' gain renewed popularity among scholars insyd de late 20th century wey e remain a useful primary source.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{Cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref> == Early life den enslavement == According to ein 1789 memoir, na dem born Equiano around 1745 insyd de Igbo village of Essaka insyd wat now be southern Nigeria. Na he claim na ein home be part of de Kingdom of Benin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Equiano's World|url=https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422014125/https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|archive-date=22 April 2023|access-date=22 April 2023|website=www.equianosworld.org}}</ref> Na Equiano recount an incident of an attempted kidnapping of kiddies insyd ein Igbo village, wich na be foiled by adults. Wen na he be around de age of eleven, na dem lef he den ein sisto alone to look after dema family premises, as na ebe common wen adults go out of de house to work. Na dem kidnap dem wey na dem take dem far from dema home, na dem separate wey na dem sell dem to [[Slavery in Africa|slave traders]]. Na he try make he escape buh na dem thwart am. After ein owners change chaw times, na Equiano happen to meet plus ein sisto buh na dem san separate. Six anaa seven months after na he be kidnapped, he arrive at de coast wer na dem take am on board a European slave ship.<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GM6AAAAcAAJ|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano|publisher=Printed for, and sold by the author|year=2005|isbn=9781615362622}}</ref> Na dem transport am plus 244 oda enslaved Africans across de Atlantic Ocean to Barbados insyd de British West Indies. Na dem send he den a few oda slaves for sale insyd de Colony of Virginia. Na literary scholar Vincent Carretta argue insyd ein 2005 biography of Equiano say na de activist fi be born insyd colonial South Carolina rada dan Africa, based on a 1759 parish baptismal record wey dey list Equiano ein place of birth as Carolina den a 1773 ship ein muster wey dey indicate South Carolina.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="blackburn">[[Robin Blackburn]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704140459/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051121/blackburn/single "The True Story of Equiano"], ''[[The Nation]]'', 2 November 2005 (archived). Retrieved 28 September 2014 {{subscription required}}.</ref> Na Carretta ein conclusion be disputed by oda scholars wey believe de weight of evidence dey support Equiano ein account of coming from Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bugg, John |date=October 2006 |title=The Other Interesting Narrative: Olaudah Equiano's Public Book Tour |journal=PMLA |volume=121 |issue=5 |pages=1424–1442, esp. 1425 |doi=10.1632/pmla.2006.121.5.1424 |jstor=25501614 |s2cid=162237773}}</ref> Insyd Virginia, na Michael Henry Pascal buy Equiano, a lieutenant insyd de Royal Navy. Na Pascal rename de boy "Gustavus Vassa", after de 16th-century King of Sweden Gustav Vasa<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref> wey begin de Protestant Reformation insyd Sweden. Na dem already rename Equiano twice: na dem call am Michael while on board de slave ship wey na e bring am to de Americas, den Jacob by ein first owner. Dis time, na Equiano refuse wey na he flow ein new owner say he go prefer to be called Jacob. Ein refusal, he dey say, "na e gain me chaw a cuff" wey eventually na he submit to de new name.Na he use dis name for de rest of ein life, wey dey include on all official records; na he use Equiano insyd ein autobiography per.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na Pascal take Equiano plus am wen na he return to England wey na he make he accompany am as a valet during de Seven Years' War plus France (1756–1763). Na Equiano dey give witness reports of de Siege of Louisbourg (1758), de Battle of Lagos (1759) den de Capture of Belle Île (1761). Na dem sanso train am insyd seamanship, na dem dey expect Equiano make he assist de ship ein crew in times of battle; na ein duty be make he haul gunpowder to de gun decks. Na Pascal favour Equiano wey he send am to ein sister-in-law insyd Great Britain so dat he fi attend school den learn to read den write. Na Equiano convert to Christianity wey na dem baptise am at St Margaret's, Westminster, on 9 February 1759, wen na dem describe am insyd de parish register as "a Black, born insyd Carolina, 12 years old".<ref>[[David Dabydeen]], [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3 "Equiano the African: Biography of a Self-made Man by Vincent Carretta"] (book review), ''[[The Guardian]]'', 3 December 2005, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114202329/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3|date=14 November 2017}}. Retrieved 11 January 2018.</ref> Na ein godparents be Mary Guerin den ein bro, Maynard, wey na dem be cousins of ein master Pascal. Na dem take an interest insyd am wey na dem help am to learn English. Later, wen na dem question Equiano ein origins after na dem publish ein book, na de Guerins testify to ein lack of English wen na he first cam to London.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Insyd December 1762, na Pascal sell Equiano to Captain James Doran of de ''Charming Sally'' at Gravesend, from wer na dem transport am back to de Caribbean, to Montserrat, insyd de Leeward Islands. Der, na dem sell am to Robert King, an American Quaker merchant wey komot Philadelphia wey trade insyd de Caribbean.<ref>{{cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African|year=1790}}</ref> == Release == [[File:Bahama_Banks_1767_RMG_PU6489.jpg|thumb|Na de wrecking of de ''Nancy'' on de Bahama Banks insys 1767, from ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African'']] Na Robert King force Equiano make he work on ein shipping routes den insyd ein stores. Insyd 1765, wen na Equiano dey about 20 years old, na King promise dat for ein purchase price of 40 pounds (equivalent to £6,900 insyd 2023) he fi buy ein freedom.<ref name="Walvin2000">{{Cite book|last=Walvin|first=James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwv0y3PUuVAC|title=An African's Life: The Life and Times of Olaudah Equiano, 1745–1797|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8264-4704-3|page=71}}</ref> Na King teach am to read den wrep more fluently, wey he guide am along de path of religion, wey na he allow Equiano make he engage insyd profitable trading for ein own account, as well as on ein owner ein behalf. Na Equiano sell fruits, glass tumblers den oda items between Georgia den de Caribbean islands. Na King allow Equiano make he buy ein freedom, wich na he achieve insyd 1766. Na de merchant urge Equiano make he stay on as a business partner. However, na Equiano find am dangerous den limiting make he remain insyd de British colonies as a freedman. While loading a ship insyd Georgia, na dem almost kidnap am back into enslavement. == Freedom == By about 1768, na Equiano go Britain. Na he continue to work at sea, wey na he dey travel sometimes as a deckhand based insyd England. Insyd 1773 on de Royal Navy ship HMS ''Racehorse'', na he travel to de Arctic insyd an expedition towards de North Pole.<ref name="chambers">[http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13855 Douglas Chambers, "'Almost an Englishman': Carretta's Equiano"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008081910/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13855|date=8 October 2014}}, H-Net Reviews, November 2007. Retrieved 28 September 2014.</ref> On dat voyage na he work plus Dr Charles Irving, wey ha develop a process to distill seawater den later make a fortune from am. Two years later, na Irving recruit Equiano for a project on de Mosquito Coast insyd Central America, wer na he for use ein African background to help select slaves den manage dem as labourers on sugar-cane plantations. Na Irving den Equiano get a working relationship den friendship for more dan a decade, buh na de plantation venture fail.<ref name="lovejoy332">Lovejoy (2006), p. 332.</ref> Na Equiano meet plus George, de "Musquito king ein son". Na Equiano lef de Mosquito Coast insyd 1776 wey na he arrive at Plymouth, England, on 7 January 1777. == Pioneer of de abolitionist cause == Na Equiano settle insyd London, wer na insyd de 1780s he cam be involved insyd de abolitionist movement.<ref name="HistoricUK">{{Cite web|last=Brain|first=Jessica|date=July 28, 2021|title=The Sons of Africa|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Sons-Of-Africa/|access-date=February 19, 2025|website=Historic UK}}</ref> Na de movement to end de slave trade particularly be strong among Quakers, buh na dem found de Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade insyd 1787 as a non-denominational group, plus Anglican members, in an attempt make dem influence parliament directly. Under de Test Act, na those wey prepare per to receive de sacrament of de Lord's Supper according to de rites of de Church of England be permitted to serve as MPs. Na Equiano be influenced by George Whitefield ein evangelism. As early as 1783, na Equiano inform abolitionists such as Granville Sharp about de slave trade; na det year he be de first to tell Sharp about de ''Zong'' massacre, wich na dem try am insyd London as litigation for insurance claims. Na e cam be a ''cause célèbre'' give de abolitionist movement wey e contribute to ein growth.<ref name="lovejoy">[http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Paul E. Lovejoy, "Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African"] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095849/http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Archived] 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, ''Slavery and Abolition'' 27, no. 3 (2006): 317–347.</ref> On 21 October 1785 na he be one of eight delegates from Africans insyd America to present an 'Address of Thanks' to de Quakers at a meeting insyd Gracechurch Street, London. Na de address refer to ''A Caution to Great Britain and her Colonies'' by Anthony Benezet, founder of de Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage.<ref>{{cite news|title=Chelmsford|newspaper=Chelmsford Chronicle|date=5 May 1786|page=3}}</ref> Na Equiano befriended wey be supported by abolitionists, na chaw encourage am make he wrep den publish ein life story. Na he be supported financially insyd dis effort by philanthropic abolitionists den religious benefactors. Na dem promote ein lectures den preparation for de book by, among odas, Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon. == Memoir == [[File:Olaudah_Equiano_plaque_at_Charles_Bell_House,_UCL,_Riding_House_Street.JPG|thumb|Plaque at Riding House Street, Westminster, wey dey note de place wer na Equiano live den publish ein narrative]] He entitle ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African'' (1789), na de book go thru nine editions insyd ein lifetime, plus translations into Russian, German den Dutch.<ref name="HistoricUK">{{Cite web|last=Brain|first=Jessica|date=July 28, 2021|title=The Sons of Africa|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Sons-Of-Africa/|access-date=February 19, 2025|website=Historic UK}}</ref> E be one of de earliest-known examples of published writing by an African writer to be widely read insyd England. By 1792, na e be a best seller wey e be published insyd Russia, Germany, Holland den de United States. Na e be de first influential slave narrative of wat na cam be a large literary genre. Buh na Equiano ein experience insyd slavery be quite different from dat of chaw slaves; na he no participate insyd field work, he serve ein owners personally wey na he go to sea, na dem teach am to read den write, wey na he work insyd trading.<ref name="lovejoy">[http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Paul E. Lovejoy, "Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095849/http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf|date=4 March 2016}}, ''Slavery and Abolition'' 27, no. 3 (2006): 317–347.</ref> Na Equiano ein personal account of slavery, ein journey of advancement, den ein experiences as a black immigrant cause a sensation on publication. Na de book fuel a growing anti-slavery movement insyd Great Britain, Europe den de New World.<ref>Kamille Stone Stanton and Julie A. Chappell (eds), ''Transatlantic Literature in the Long Eighteenth Century'', Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2011.</ref> Ein account surprise chaw plus de quality of ein imagery, description den literary style. Insy ein account, na Equiano dey give details about ein hometown den de laws den customs of de Eboe people. After na dem capture am as a boy, he describe communities na he pass thru as a captive on ein way to de coast. Na ein biography dey detail ein voyage on a slave ship den de brutality of slavery insyd de colonies of de West Indies, Virginia den Georgia. Na Equiano comment on de reduced rights wey na freed people of colour get insyd dese same places, wey na dem sanso face risks of kidnapping den enslavement. Na Equiano embrace Christianity at de age of 14 den ein importance to am be a recurring theme insyd ein autobiography. Na dem baptise am into de Church of England insyd 1759; na he describe einself insyd ein autobiography as a "protestant of de church of England" buh na he sanso flirt plus Methodism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hinds |first=Elizabeth Jane Wall |date=Winter 1998 |title=The Spirit of Trade: Olaudah Equiano's Conversion, Legalism, and the Merchant's Life |journal=African American Review |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=635–647 |doi=10.2307/2901242 |jstor=2901242}}</ref> Na chaw events insyd Equiano ein life lead am make he question ein faith. Na he be distressed insyd 1774 by de kidnapping of ein paddie, a black cook dem name John Annis. Na Annis den ein former enslaver, William Kirkpatrick, initially na dem "part by consent" buh na Kirkpatrick renege, wey na he dey seek to kidnap den re-enslave Annis. Na Kirkpatrick ultimately be successful, wey na he forcibly remove Annis from de British ship ''Anglicania'' wer na both he den Equiano serve.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself|date=|publisher=|year=1789|isbn=|editor-last=|editor-first=|edition=|series=|location=London, UK|pages=189–207}}</ref> Na dis be in violation of de decision insyd de Somersett Case (1772), dat dem no fi take slaves from England widout dema permission, as na common law no dey support de institution insyd England & Wales. Na Kirkpatrick make dem transport Annis to Saint Kitts, wer na dem punish am severely wey na he work as a plantation labourer til he die. Plus de aid of Granville Sharp, na Equiano try make he get Annis released before na dem ship am from England buh na he be unsuccessful. Na he hear dat na Annis no be free from suffering til he die insyd slavery.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Excerpt from Chap. 10, ''An Interesting Narrative''.|url=http://www.brycchancarey.com/equiano/extract6.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202195424/http://www.brycchancarey.com/equiano/extract6.htm|archive-date=2 February 2014|access-date=28 January 2014}}</ref> Despite ein questioning, he dey affirm ein faith insyd Christianity, as seen insyd de penultimate sentence of ein work wey dey quote de prophet Micah (Micah 6:8): "''After all, what makes any event important, unless by its observation we become better and wiser, and learn 'to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly before God?'' == Later years, radical connections == During de American Revolutionary War, na Britain recruit black people make dem fight plus am by offering freedom to those wey lef rebel masters. In practice, na e sanso free women den kiddies, wey na e attract thousands of slaves to ein lines insyd New York City, wich na e occupy, den insyd de South, wer na ein troops occupy Charleston, South Carolina. Wen na dem evacuate British troops at de end of de war, na dema officers sanso evacuate dese former American slaves. Na dem resettle dem insyd de Caribbean, insyd Nova Scotia, insyd [[Sierra Leone]] insyd Africa, den insyd London. Na Britain refuse make e return de slaves, wich na de United States sought insyd peace negotiations. Insyd 1783, dey follow de United States ein gaining independence, na Equiano cam be involved insyd he dey help de Black Poor of London, wey na dem mostly be those former African-American slaves dem free during den after de American Revolution by de British. Na der sanso be sam freed slaves from de Caribbean, den sam wey na dem be brought by dema owners to England wey na dem free later after de decision dat Britain get no basis insyd common law for slavery. Na de black community number about 20,000.<ref name="lovejoy334">Lovejoy (2006), p. 334.</ref> After de Revolution na sam 3,000 former slaves be transported from New York to Nova Scotia, wer na dem cam be known as Black Loyalists, among oda Loyalists sanso resettle der. Na chaw of de freedmen find am difficult make dem make new lives insyd London anaa Canada. Na dem appoint Equiano "Commissary of Provisions den Stores give de Black Poor wey dey go to Sierra Leone" insyd November 1786.Na dis be an expedition to resettle London ein Black Poor insyd Freetown, a new British colony dem found on de west coast of Africa, insyd present-day [[Sierra Leone]]. Na de blacks wey komot London be joined by more dan 1,200 Black Loyalists wey choose to leave Nova Scotia. Na dem be aided by John Clarkson, younger bro of abolitionist Thomas Clarkson. Na Jamaican maroons, as well as slaves dem liberate from illegal slave-trading ships after na Britain abolish de slave trade, na dem sanso settle at Freetown insyd de early decades. Na dem dismiss Equiano from de new settlement after he protest against financial mismanagement wey na he return to London.<ref>David Damrosch, Susan J. Wolfson, Peter J. Manning (eds), ''The Longman Anthology of British Literature'', Volume 2A: "The Romantics and Their Contemporaries" (2003), p. 211.</ref><ref>Michael Siva, ''Why did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?'' (London: Open University, 2014), pp. 28–33.</ref> Na Equiano be a prominent figure insyd London wey na he often serve as a spokesman give de black community. Na he be one of de leading members of de Sons of Africa, a small abolitionist group wey be composed of free Africans insyd London. Na dem be closely allied plus de Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade. Na Equiano ein comments on issues be published insyd newspapers such as de ''Public Advertiser'' den de ''Morning Chronicle''. Na he reply to James Tobin insyd 1788, insyd de ''Public Advertiser'', wey dey attack two of ein pamphlets den a related book from 1786 by Gordon Turnbull.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Vincent Carretta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ka0fBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=Genius in Bondage: Literature of the Early Black Atlantic|author2=Philip Gould|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|year=2015|isbn=978-0-8131-5946-1|page=67}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Fryer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8rVeu2go8IC&pg=PA108|title=Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain|publisher=University of Alberta|year=1984|isbn=978-0-86104-749-9|pages=108–9|author-link=}}</ref> Na Equiano get more of a public voice dan chaw Africans anaa Black Loyalists wey na he seize chaw opportunities to use am.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shyllon |first=Folarin |author-link= |date=September 1977 |title=Olaudah Equiano; Nigerian Abolitionist and First Leader of Africans in Britain |journal=Journal of African Studies |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=433–451}}</ref> tfo7bimnj3og1g3uw3evjl3mru8gubm 63464 63456 2025-06-16T15:57:02Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Marriage and family" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295734653|Olaudah Equiano]]" 63464 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Olaudah Equiano''' (/əˈlaʊdə/; c. 1745 – 31 March 1797), dem know am for chaw of ein life as '''Gustavus Vassa''' (/ˈvæsə/), na he be a writer den abolitionist. According to ein memoir, na he komot de village of Essaka insyd present day southern [[Nigeria]].<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na dem enslave as a kiddie insyd [[West Africa]], na dem [[Atlantic slave trade|ship am to de Caribbean]] wey na dem sell to a Royal Navy officer. Na dem sell amtwice more before na he purchase ein freedom insyd 1766. inEquiano be part of de abolitionist group de Sons of Africa, wey na ein members be Africans wey dey live insyd Britain. Na 1789 autobiography, ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano'', sell so well dat na dem publish nine editions during ein life wey na e help secure passage of de British Slave Trade Act 1807, wich na e abolish de slave trade.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofolaudahequ00equi|title=The Life of Olaudah Equiano, or, Gustavus Vassa, the African|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1999|isbn=978-0-486-40661-9|location=Mineola, NY}}</ref>''The Interesting Narrative'' gain renewed popularity among scholars insyd de late 20th century wey e remain a useful primary source.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{Cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref> == Early life den enslavement == According to ein 1789 memoir, na dem born Equiano around 1745 insyd de Igbo village of Essaka insyd wat now be southern Nigeria. Na he claim na ein home be part of de Kingdom of Benin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Equiano's World|url=https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422014125/https://www.equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=13#sec1|archive-date=22 April 2023|access-date=22 April 2023|website=www.equianosworld.org}}</ref> Na Equiano recount an incident of an attempted kidnapping of kiddies insyd ein Igbo village, wich na be foiled by adults. Wen na he be around de age of eleven, na dem lef he den ein sisto alone to look after dema family premises, as na ebe common wen adults go out of de house to work. Na dem kidnap dem wey na dem take dem far from dema home, na dem separate wey na dem sell dem to [[Slavery in Africa|slave traders]]. Na he try make he escape buh na dem thwart am. After ein owners change chaw times, na Equiano happen to meet plus ein sisto buh na dem san separate. Six anaa seven months after na he be kidnapped, he arrive at de coast wer na dem take am on board a European slave ship.<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GM6AAAAcAAJ|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano|publisher=Printed for, and sold by the author|year=2005|isbn=9781615362622}}</ref> Na dem transport am plus 244 oda enslaved Africans across de Atlantic Ocean to Barbados insyd de British West Indies. Na dem send he den a few oda slaves for sale insyd de Colony of Virginia. Na literary scholar Vincent Carretta argue insyd ein 2005 biography of Equiano say na de activist fi be born insyd colonial South Carolina rada dan Africa, based on a 1759 parish baptismal record wey dey list Equiano ein place of birth as Carolina den a 1773 ship ein muster wey dey indicate South Carolina.<ref name="Carretta xvi">{{cite book|last=Carretta|first=Vincent|url=https://archive.org/details/equianoafricanbi0000carr|title=Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8203-2571-2|page=xvi|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="blackburn">[[Robin Blackburn]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704140459/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051121/blackburn/single "The True Story of Equiano"], ''[[The Nation]]'', 2 November 2005 (archived). Retrieved 28 September 2014 {{subscription required}}.</ref> Na Carretta ein conclusion be disputed by oda scholars wey believe de weight of evidence dey support Equiano ein account of coming from Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bugg, John |date=October 2006 |title=The Other Interesting Narrative: Olaudah Equiano's Public Book Tour |journal=PMLA |volume=121 |issue=5 |pages=1424–1442, esp. 1425 |doi=10.1632/pmla.2006.121.5.1424 |jstor=25501614 |s2cid=162237773}}</ref> Insyd Virginia, na Michael Henry Pascal buy Equiano, a lieutenant insyd de Royal Navy. Na Pascal rename de boy "Gustavus Vassa", after de 16th-century King of Sweden Gustav Vasa<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref> wey begin de Protestant Reformation insyd Sweden. Na dem already rename Equiano twice: na dem call am Michael while on board de slave ship wey na e bring am to de Americas, den Jacob by ein first owner. Dis time, na Equiano refuse wey na he flow ein new owner say he go prefer to be called Jacob. Ein refusal, he dey say, "na e gain me chaw a cuff" wey eventually na he submit to de new name.Na he use dis name for de rest of ein life, wey dey include on all official records; na he use Equiano insyd ein autobiography per.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Na Pascal take Equiano plus am wen na he return to England wey na he make he accompany am as a valet during de Seven Years' War plus France (1756–1763). Na Equiano dey give witness reports of de Siege of Louisbourg (1758), de Battle of Lagos (1759) den de Capture of Belle Île (1761). Na dem sanso train am insyd seamanship, na dem dey expect Equiano make he assist de ship ein crew in times of battle; na ein duty be make he haul gunpowder to de gun decks. Na Pascal favour Equiano wey he send am to ein sister-in-law insyd Great Britain so dat he fi attend school den learn to read den write. Na Equiano convert to Christianity wey na dem baptise am at St Margaret's, Westminster, on 9 February 1759, wen na dem describe am insyd de parish register as "a Black, born insyd Carolina, 12 years old".<ref>[[David Dabydeen]], [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3 "Equiano the African: Biography of a Self-made Man by Vincent Carretta"] (book review), ''[[The Guardian]]'', 3 December 2005, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114202329/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/dec/03/featuresreviews.guardianreview3|date=14 November 2017}}. Retrieved 11 January 2018.</ref> Na ein godparents be Mary Guerin den ein bro, Maynard, wey na dem be cousins of ein master Pascal. Na dem take an interest insyd am wey na dem help am to learn English. Later, wen na dem question Equiano ein origins after na dem publish ein book, na de Guerins testify to ein lack of English wen na he first cam to London.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul E. |year=2006 |title=Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=317–347 |doi=10.1080/01440390601014302 |s2cid=146143041}}</ref> Insyd December 1762, na Pascal sell Equiano to Captain James Doran of de ''Charming Sally'' at Gravesend, from wer na dem transport am back to de Caribbean, to Montserrat, insyd de Leeward Islands. Der, na dem sell am to Robert King, an American Quaker merchant wey komot Philadelphia wey trade insyd de Caribbean.<ref>{{cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African|year=1790}}</ref> == Release == [[File:Bahama_Banks_1767_RMG_PU6489.jpg|thumb|Na de wrecking of de ''Nancy'' on de Bahama Banks insys 1767, from ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African'']] Na Robert King force Equiano make he work on ein shipping routes den insyd ein stores. Insyd 1765, wen na Equiano dey about 20 years old, na King promise dat for ein purchase price of 40 pounds (equivalent to £6,900 insyd 2023) he fi buy ein freedom.<ref name="Walvin2000">{{Cite book|last=Walvin|first=James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwv0y3PUuVAC|title=An African's Life: The Life and Times of Olaudah Equiano, 1745–1797|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8264-4704-3|page=71}}</ref> Na King teach am to read den wrep more fluently, wey he guide am along de path of religion, wey na he allow Equiano make he engage insyd profitable trading for ein own account, as well as on ein owner ein behalf. Na Equiano sell fruits, glass tumblers den oda items between Georgia den de Caribbean islands. Na King allow Equiano make he buy ein freedom, wich na he achieve insyd 1766. Na de merchant urge Equiano make he stay on as a business partner. However, na Equiano find am dangerous den limiting make he remain insyd de British colonies as a freedman. While loading a ship insyd Georgia, na dem almost kidnap am back into enslavement. == Freedom == By about 1768, na Equiano go Britain. Na he continue to work at sea, wey na he dey travel sometimes as a deckhand based insyd England. Insyd 1773 on de Royal Navy ship HMS ''Racehorse'', na he travel to de Arctic insyd an expedition towards de North Pole.<ref name="chambers">[http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13855 Douglas Chambers, "'Almost an Englishman': Carretta's Equiano"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008081910/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13855|date=8 October 2014}}, H-Net Reviews, November 2007. Retrieved 28 September 2014.</ref> On dat voyage na he work plus Dr Charles Irving, wey ha develop a process to distill seawater den later make a fortune from am. Two years later, na Irving recruit Equiano for a project on de Mosquito Coast insyd Central America, wer na he for use ein African background to help select slaves den manage dem as labourers on sugar-cane plantations. Na Irving den Equiano get a working relationship den friendship for more dan a decade, buh na de plantation venture fail.<ref name="lovejoy332">Lovejoy (2006), p. 332.</ref> Na Equiano meet plus George, de "Musquito king ein son". Na Equiano lef de Mosquito Coast insyd 1776 wey na he arrive at Plymouth, England, on 7 January 1777. == Pioneer of de abolitionist cause == Na Equiano settle insyd London, wer na insyd de 1780s he cam be involved insyd de abolitionist movement.<ref name="HistoricUK">{{Cite web|last=Brain|first=Jessica|date=July 28, 2021|title=The Sons of Africa|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Sons-Of-Africa/|access-date=February 19, 2025|website=Historic UK}}</ref> Na de movement to end de slave trade particularly be strong among Quakers, buh na dem found de Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade insyd 1787 as a non-denominational group, plus Anglican members, in an attempt make dem influence parliament directly. Under de Test Act, na those wey prepare per to receive de sacrament of de Lord's Supper according to de rites of de Church of England be permitted to serve as MPs. Na Equiano be influenced by George Whitefield ein evangelism. As early as 1783, na Equiano inform abolitionists such as Granville Sharp about de slave trade; na det year he be de first to tell Sharp about de ''Zong'' massacre, wich na dem try am insyd London as litigation for insurance claims. Na e cam be a ''cause célèbre'' give de abolitionist movement wey e contribute to ein growth.<ref name="lovejoy">[http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Paul E. Lovejoy, "Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African"] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095849/http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Archived] 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, ''Slavery and Abolition'' 27, no. 3 (2006): 317–347.</ref> On 21 October 1785 na he be one of eight delegates from Africans insyd America to present an 'Address of Thanks' to de Quakers at a meeting insyd Gracechurch Street, London. Na de address refer to ''A Caution to Great Britain and her Colonies'' by Anthony Benezet, founder of de Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage.<ref>{{cite news|title=Chelmsford|newspaper=Chelmsford Chronicle|date=5 May 1786|page=3}}</ref> Na Equiano befriended wey be supported by abolitionists, na chaw encourage am make he wrep den publish ein life story. Na he be supported financially insyd dis effort by philanthropic abolitionists den religious benefactors. Na dem promote ein lectures den preparation for de book by, among odas, Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon. == Memoir == [[File:Olaudah_Equiano_plaque_at_Charles_Bell_House,_UCL,_Riding_House_Street.JPG|thumb|Plaque at Riding House Street, Westminster, wey dey note de place wer na Equiano live den publish ein narrative]] He entitle ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African'' (1789), na de book go thru nine editions insyd ein lifetime, plus translations into Russian, German den Dutch.<ref name="HistoricUK">{{Cite web|last=Brain|first=Jessica|date=July 28, 2021|title=The Sons of Africa|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Sons-Of-Africa/|access-date=February 19, 2025|website=Historic UK}}</ref> E be one of de earliest-known examples of published writing by an African writer to be widely read insyd England. By 1792, na e be a best seller wey e be published insyd Russia, Germany, Holland den de United States. Na e be de first influential slave narrative of wat na cam be a large literary genre. Buh na Equiano ein experience insyd slavery be quite different from dat of chaw slaves; na he no participate insyd field work, he serve ein owners personally wey na he go to sea, na dem teach am to read den write, wey na he work insyd trading.<ref name="lovejoy">[http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf Paul E. Lovejoy, "Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095849/http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/equiano/articles_and_debates/Lovejoy%20Vassa%20Slavey%20and%20Abolition.pdf|date=4 March 2016}}, ''Slavery and Abolition'' 27, no. 3 (2006): 317–347.</ref> Na Equiano ein personal account of slavery, ein journey of advancement, den ein experiences as a black immigrant cause a sensation on publication. Na de book fuel a growing anti-slavery movement insyd Great Britain, Europe den de New World.<ref>Kamille Stone Stanton and Julie A. Chappell (eds), ''Transatlantic Literature in the Long Eighteenth Century'', Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2011.</ref> Ein account surprise chaw plus de quality of ein imagery, description den literary style. Insy ein account, na Equiano dey give details about ein hometown den de laws den customs of de Eboe people. After na dem capture am as a boy, he describe communities na he pass thru as a captive on ein way to de coast. Na ein biography dey detail ein voyage on a slave ship den de brutality of slavery insyd de colonies of de West Indies, Virginia den Georgia. Na Equiano comment on de reduced rights wey na freed people of colour get insyd dese same places, wey na dem sanso face risks of kidnapping den enslavement. Na Equiano embrace Christianity at de age of 14 den ein importance to am be a recurring theme insyd ein autobiography. Na dem baptise am into de Church of England insyd 1759; na he describe einself insyd ein autobiography as a "protestant of de church of England" buh na he sanso flirt plus Methodism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hinds |first=Elizabeth Jane Wall |date=Winter 1998 |title=The Spirit of Trade: Olaudah Equiano's Conversion, Legalism, and the Merchant's Life |journal=African American Review |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=635–647 |doi=10.2307/2901242 |jstor=2901242}}</ref> Na chaw events insyd Equiano ein life lead am make he question ein faith. Na he be distressed insyd 1774 by de kidnapping of ein paddie, a black cook dem name John Annis. Na Annis den ein former enslaver, William Kirkpatrick, initially na dem "part by consent" buh na Kirkpatrick renege, wey na he dey seek to kidnap den re-enslave Annis. Na Kirkpatrick ultimately be successful, wey na he forcibly remove Annis from de British ship ''Anglicania'' wer na both he den Equiano serve.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|title=The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself|date=|publisher=|year=1789|isbn=|editor-last=|editor-first=|edition=|series=|location=London, UK|pages=189–207}}</ref> Na dis be in violation of de decision insyd de Somersett Case (1772), dat dem no fi take slaves from England widout dema permission, as na common law no dey support de institution insyd England & Wales. Na Kirkpatrick make dem transport Annis to Saint Kitts, wer na dem punish am severely wey na he work as a plantation labourer til he die. Plus de aid of Granville Sharp, na Equiano try make he get Annis released before na dem ship am from England buh na he be unsuccessful. Na he hear dat na Annis no be free from suffering til he die insyd slavery.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Excerpt from Chap. 10, ''An Interesting Narrative''.|url=http://www.brycchancarey.com/equiano/extract6.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202195424/http://www.brycchancarey.com/equiano/extract6.htm|archive-date=2 February 2014|access-date=28 January 2014}}</ref> Despite ein questioning, he dey affirm ein faith insyd Christianity, as seen insyd de penultimate sentence of ein work wey dey quote de prophet Micah (Micah 6:8): "''After all, what makes any event important, unless by its observation we become better and wiser, and learn 'to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly before God?'' == Later years, radical connections == During de American Revolutionary War, na Britain recruit black people make dem fight plus am by offering freedom to those wey lef rebel masters. In practice, na e sanso free women den kiddies, wey na e attract thousands of slaves to ein lines insyd New York City, wich na e occupy, den insyd de South, wer na ein troops occupy Charleston, South Carolina. Wen na dem evacuate British troops at de end of de war, na dema officers sanso evacuate dese former American slaves. Na dem resettle dem insyd de Caribbean, insyd Nova Scotia, insyd [[Sierra Leone]] insyd Africa, den insyd London. Na Britain refuse make e return de slaves, wich na de United States sought insyd peace negotiations. Insyd 1783, dey follow de United States ein gaining independence, na Equiano cam be involved insyd he dey help de Black Poor of London, wey na dem mostly be those former African-American slaves dem free during den after de American Revolution by de British. Na der sanso be sam freed slaves from de Caribbean, den sam wey na dem be brought by dema owners to England wey na dem free later after de decision dat Britain get no basis insyd common law for slavery. Na de black community number about 20,000.<ref name="lovejoy334">Lovejoy (2006), p. 334.</ref> After de Revolution na sam 3,000 former slaves be transported from New York to Nova Scotia, wer na dem cam be known as Black Loyalists, among oda Loyalists sanso resettle der. Na chaw of de freedmen find am difficult make dem make new lives insyd London anaa Canada. Na dem appoint Equiano "Commissary of Provisions den Stores give de Black Poor wey dey go to Sierra Leone" insyd November 1786.Na dis be an expedition to resettle London ein Black Poor insyd Freetown, a new British colony dem found on de west coast of Africa, insyd present-day [[Sierra Leone]]. Na de blacks wey komot London be joined by more dan 1,200 Black Loyalists wey choose to leave Nova Scotia. Na dem be aided by John Clarkson, younger bro of abolitionist Thomas Clarkson. Na Jamaican maroons, as well as slaves dem liberate from illegal slave-trading ships after na Britain abolish de slave trade, na dem sanso settle at Freetown insyd de early decades. Na dem dismiss Equiano from de new settlement after he protest against financial mismanagement wey na he return to London.<ref>David Damrosch, Susan J. Wolfson, Peter J. Manning (eds), ''The Longman Anthology of British Literature'', Volume 2A: "The Romantics and Their Contemporaries" (2003), p. 211.</ref><ref>Michael Siva, ''Why did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?'' (London: Open University, 2014), pp. 28–33.</ref> Na Equiano be a prominent figure insyd London wey na he often serve as a spokesman give de black community. Na he be one of de leading members of de Sons of Africa, a small abolitionist group wey be composed of free Africans insyd London. Na dem be closely allied plus de Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade. Na Equiano ein comments on issues be published insyd newspapers such as de ''Public Advertiser'' den de ''Morning Chronicle''. Na he reply to James Tobin insyd 1788, insyd de ''Public Advertiser'', wey dey attack two of ein pamphlets den a related book from 1786 by Gordon Turnbull.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Vincent Carretta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ka0fBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=Genius in Bondage: Literature of the Early Black Atlantic|author2=Philip Gould|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|year=2015|isbn=978-0-8131-5946-1|page=67}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Fryer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8rVeu2go8IC&pg=PA108|title=Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain|publisher=University of Alberta|year=1984|isbn=978-0-86104-749-9|pages=108–9|author-link=}}</ref> Na Equiano get more of a public voice dan chaw Africans anaa Black Loyalists wey na he seize chaw opportunities to use am.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shyllon |first=Folarin |author-link= |date=September 1977 |title=Olaudah Equiano; Nigerian Abolitionist and First Leader of Africans in Britain |journal=Journal of African Studies |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=433–451}}</ref> == Marriage den family == [[File:Portrait_of_a_Man_in_a_Red_Suit_-_Unknown-_14-1943.jpg|thumb|A portrait of an unknown man dem previously identify as Ignatius Sancho, anaa as Equiano, insyd de Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter]] On 7 April 1792, na Equiano marry Susannah Cullen, a local woman, insyd St Andrew's Church, Soham, Cambridgeshire.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa The African – 200th Anniversary of the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.equiano.soham.org.uk/marriage.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814133132/http://www.equiano.soham.org.uk/marriage.htm|archive-date=14 August 2021|access-date=14 August 2021|website=equiano.soham.org.uk}}</ref> Dem hold today de original marriage register wey dey contain de entry give Vassa den Cullen by de Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies. Na he include ein marriage insyd every edition of ein autobiography from 1792 dey go. Na de couple settle insyd de area wey na dem get two daughters, Anna Maria (1793–1797) den Joanna (1795–1857), wey na dem baptise dem at Soham church. Susannah die insyd February 1796, aged 34, wey na Equiano die a year later, on 31 March 1797.<ref name="BBC20061031">{{cite web|title=Olaudah Equiano|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713122257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml|archive-date=13 July 2006|access-date=5 July 2006|publisher=BBC History}}</ref> Soon afterwards, na Anna die at de age of four, leaving Joanna make he inherit Equiano ein estate wen na she dey 21 years old; na then dem value am at £950 (equivalent to £92,000 insyd 2023). Den dey commemorate Anna Maria by a plaque at St Andrew's Church, Chesterton, Cambridge. Na Joanna Vassa marry de Reverend Henry Bromley, a Congregationalist minister, insyd 1821. Dem both be buried at de non-denominational Abney Park Cemetery insyd Stoke Newington, London; de Bromleys ein monument now be a Grade II listed building. smh9p0zk00oz37eilu69vl7f501wr7f 0 17327 63437 63409 2025-06-16T14:13:40Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Formative years" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277115818|David Bustill Bowser]]" 63437 wikitext text/x-wiki '''David Bustill Bowser''' (January 16, 1820, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – June 30, 1900, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) na he be a 19th-century African-American ornamental artist, portraitist, den social activist.<ref>Lewis, Samella S. ''African American art and artists''. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2003.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Grand United Order Odd Fellows America [membership certificate] [graphic]. {{!}} Library Company of Philadelphia Digital Collections|url=https://digital.librarycompany.org/islandora/object/digitool:64192/print|access-date=2024-06-21|website=digital.librarycompany.org|language=en}}</ref> Na he design battle flags for eleven African-American regiments during de American Civil War wey na he paint portraits of prominent Americans, wey dey include U.S. Presido [[Abraham Lincoln]] den abolitionist John Brown. Na he be politically active thru out much of ein adult life, na he be a contributor to de [[Underground Railroad]] wey na he sanso help to secure de post-war passage of key civil rights legislation insyd Pennsylvania.<ref>"[http://digitalnewspapers.libraries.psu.edu/olive/apa/civilwar/SharedView.Article.aspx?href=DEB%2F1867%2F08%2F15&id=Ar00205&sk=6609DE64 Pennsylvania Equal Rights League]{{Dead link|date=November 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ''Daily Evening Bulletin'', August 15, 1867, p. 2.</ref> As a major figure insyd de Grand United Order of Odd Fellows, na he design broadsides den regalia give de organization.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection|url=http://archive.org/details/artisxxxxxxxxblinc|title=Artists of Abraham Lincoln portraits|date=1893|others=Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection}}</ref> Na de Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission describe Bowser as an artist wey na ein "works be de first widely viewed, positive images of African Americans painted by an African American".<ref>"[http://explorepahistory.com/hmarker.php?markerId=1-A-18D David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker]," in "Explore PA History." Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, retrieved online February 23, 2019.</ref> == Formative years == Na dem born am insyd Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on January 16, 1820, na David Bustill Bowser be a grandson of Cyrus Bustill (1732–1806), a formerly enslaved man wey purchase ein freedom wey he go on to become a founding member of Philadelphia ein Free African Society, den a son of oyster house proprietor Jeremiah Bowser (1766–1856), wey na ein freedom be purchased by a group of Philadelphia Quakers after na dem arrest am for he be a fugitive slave.<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=QQVQAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Jeremiah+Bowser%22+and+%22fugitive+slave%22+and+Philadelphia&pg=PA413 Fugitive Slaves]." Friends' Intelligencer and Journal, Vol. 55, p. 413. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Friends' Intelligencer Association, Limited, 1898.</ref> A member of de prominent Bustill family, na he be a cousin den student of artist Robert Douglass Jr., wey train at de Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts wey na he be a pupil of Thomas Sully.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Porter|first=James A.|url=https://archive.org/details/modernnegroart0000port|title=Modern Negro Art|date=1992|publisher=Howard University Press|isbn=0882581635|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=26851043|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> Na David Bustill Bowser sanso attend de private school wey be operated by Douglass ein sisto, Sarah Mapps Douglass.<ref>"[http://coloredconventions.org/exhibits/show/mobilitymigration1855/delegates/robert-douglass-jr--2 Robert Douglass, Jr.]," in "Mobility, Migration, and the 1855 Philadelphia National Convention," in "Colored Conventions: Bringing Nineteenth-Century Black Organizing to Life." Newark, Delaware: University of Delaware, Library, retrieved online February 23, 2019.</ref> Na he marry to seamstress Elizabeth Harriet Stevens Gray (June 13, 1831 – November 29, 1908), David Bustill Bowser den ein wifey be de parents of artist Raphael Bowser den Ida Elizabeth (Bowser) Asbury (1870–1955), a violinist den music teacher. Na dem be respected for dema civic engagement den philanthropy, David B. den Elizabeth Bowser support dema family by designing den painting banners, signs, uniform hats den oda regalia give fraternal associations, political groups, den volunteer fire companies insyd den beyond Philadelphia.<ref>Moniz, Amanda B. "[http://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/bowser Making money and doing good: The story of an African American power couple from the 1800s]," in "O Say Can You See?" Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian National Museum of American History, February 9, 2018.</ref> 51k1zbyvp2ao2byjijf2q3zgibjs84m 63729 63437 2025-06-17T05:36:29Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Mid-1800s and the American Civil War" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277115818|David Bustill Bowser]]" 63729 wikitext text/x-wiki '''David Bustill Bowser''' (January 16, 1820, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – June 30, 1900, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) na he be a 19th-century African-American ornamental artist, portraitist, den social activist.<ref>Lewis, Samella S. ''African American art and artists''. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2003.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Grand United Order Odd Fellows America [membership certificate] [graphic]. {{!}} Library Company of Philadelphia Digital Collections|url=https://digital.librarycompany.org/islandora/object/digitool:64192/print|access-date=2024-06-21|website=digital.librarycompany.org|language=en}}</ref> Na he design battle flags for eleven African-American regiments during de American Civil War wey na he paint portraits of prominent Americans, wey dey include U.S. Presido [[Abraham Lincoln]] den abolitionist John Brown. Na he be politically active thru out much of ein adult life, na he be a contributor to de [[Underground Railroad]] wey na he sanso help to secure de post-war passage of key civil rights legislation insyd Pennsylvania.<ref>"[http://digitalnewspapers.libraries.psu.edu/olive/apa/civilwar/SharedView.Article.aspx?href=DEB%2F1867%2F08%2F15&id=Ar00205&sk=6609DE64 Pennsylvania Equal Rights League]{{Dead link|date=November 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ''Daily Evening Bulletin'', August 15, 1867, p. 2.</ref> As a major figure insyd de Grand United Order of Odd Fellows, na he design broadsides den regalia give de organization.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection|url=http://archive.org/details/artisxxxxxxxxblinc|title=Artists of Abraham Lincoln portraits|date=1893|others=Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection}}</ref> Na de Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission describe Bowser as an artist wey na ein "works be de first widely viewed, positive images of African Americans painted by an African American".<ref>"[http://explorepahistory.com/hmarker.php?markerId=1-A-18D David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker]," in "Explore PA History." Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, retrieved online February 23, 2019.</ref> == Formative years == Na dem born am insyd Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on January 16, 1820, na David Bustill Bowser be a grandson of Cyrus Bustill (1732–1806), a formerly enslaved man wey purchase ein freedom wey he go on to become a founding member of Philadelphia ein Free African Society, den a son of oyster house proprietor Jeremiah Bowser (1766–1856), wey na ein freedom be purchased by a group of Philadelphia Quakers after na dem arrest am for he be a fugitive slave.<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=QQVQAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Jeremiah+Bowser%22+and+%22fugitive+slave%22+and+Philadelphia&pg=PA413 Fugitive Slaves]." Friends' Intelligencer and Journal, Vol. 55, p. 413. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Friends' Intelligencer Association, Limited, 1898.</ref> A member of de prominent Bustill family, na he be a cousin den student of artist Robert Douglass Jr., wey train at de Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts wey na he be a pupil of Thomas Sully.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Porter|first=James A.|url=https://archive.org/details/modernnegroart0000port|title=Modern Negro Art|date=1992|publisher=Howard University Press|isbn=0882581635|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=26851043|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> Na David Bustill Bowser sanso attend de private school wey be operated by Douglass ein sisto, Sarah Mapps Douglass.<ref>"[http://coloredconventions.org/exhibits/show/mobilitymigration1855/delegates/robert-douglass-jr--2 Robert Douglass, Jr.]," in "Mobility, Migration, and the 1855 Philadelphia National Convention," in "Colored Conventions: Bringing Nineteenth-Century Black Organizing to Life." Newark, Delaware: University of Delaware, Library, retrieved online February 23, 2019.</ref> Na he marry to seamstress Elizabeth Harriet Stevens Gray (June 13, 1831 – November 29, 1908), David Bustill Bowser den ein wifey be de parents of artist Raphael Bowser den Ida Elizabeth (Bowser) Asbury (1870–1955), a violinist den music teacher. Na dem be respected for dema civic engagement den philanthropy, David B. den Elizabeth Bowser support dema family by designing den painting banners, signs, uniform hats den oda regalia give fraternal associations, political groups, den volunteer fire companies insyd den beyond Philadelphia.<ref>Moniz, Amanda B. "[http://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/bowser Making money and doing good: The story of an African American power couple from the 1800s]," in "O Say Can You See?" Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian National Museum of American History, February 9, 2018.</ref> == Mid-1800s den de American Civil War == During de 1840s, na Bowser paint banners give a diverse range of clients, wey dey include de Know Nothing Party, wey na he receive a commission make he paint de portrait of prominent abolitionist den real estate developer [[Jacob C. White]]. Active insyd dat decade ein efforts make dem repeal de clause insyd Pennsylvania's Constitution wich na prohibit blacks from voting, na Bowser den ein family sanso cam be so involved plus de abolition movement wey na dema home cam be a stop on de [[Underground Railroad]]. Insyd 1858, na politics dwn advocacy merge plus art wen na Bower paint de portrait of abolitionist John Brown while na Brown dey visit de Bowser home. During dis same period, na Bowser sanso plete work on ein painting, ''The Firebell in the Night''.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> [[File:Odd_Fellows_David_Bustill_Bowser.jpg|left|thumb|255x255px|Bowser ein 1844 Grand United Order of Odd Fellows membership certificate; na Bowser likely create de chromolithograph insyd de center.]] Na he be active during dis phase of ein life plus de Grand United Order of Odd Fellows. As Grand Master of de Order insyd Philadelphia, na he deliver de keynote address at de Annual Moveable Committee of de G.U.O. of O.F. insyd Toronto, Canada on October 17, 1859, as na ein members celebrate de organization ein thirteenth anniversary. According to news reports, na dem "listen to am thru out plus much attention, wey na dem frequently rapturously applaud am" as na he "define in eloquent terms de nature of de work of Odd Fellows — especially dat great den leading principle, Charity," wey na he "remark upon de practical good wey be effected by Odd Fellowship, in alleviating distress den dey bestow chaw of de comforts of life upon de aged den infirm of de Order, as well as dem dey confer benefactions upon de widow den orphan."<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83035143/1859-10-11/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=1789&index=9&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 Odd Fellows' Celebration]." Cleveland, Ohio: ''Cleveland Morning Leader'', October 11, 1859, p. 2.</ref> During de American Civil War, na Bowser join plus chaw oda prominent members of Philadelphia ein African-American community make dem begin recruiting soldiers insyd 1862<ref>"[http://digitalnewspapers.libraries.psu.edu/olive/apa/civilwar/SharedView.Article.aspx?href=PDP%2F1862%2F08%2F07&id=Ar00203&sk=D07A53D9 How the Colored People Look Upon the War]," in "The City." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ''The Press'', August 7, 1862, p. 2.</ref> insyd de event dat de federal government go permit large numbers of black soldiers to enlist following de 1863 announcement of de [[Emancipation Proclamation]] by [[Abraham Lincoln|Presido Abraham Lincoln]]. Na Bowser be then commissioned insyd early 1863 make he design banners den battle flags for eleven of those African-American regiments in preparation for dema respective mustering at Camp William Penn, wich na dey locate just outsyd of Philadelphia.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref><ref>Sauers, Richard A. ''Advance The Colors: Pennsylvania Civil War Battle Flags'', Vol. 1, pp. 40-57. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Capitol Preservation Committee, 1987 and 1991.</ref><ref>Smith, Eric Ledell, "Painted with Pride in the U.S.A.," in ''Pennsylvania Heritage'', Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 24-31. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Heritage Foundation, 2001.</ref> [[File:Men_of_Color_Civil_War_Recruitment_Broadside_1863.png|thumb|Insyd 1863, na Bowser be among 54 Black Philadelphian community leaders make dem sign Frederick Douglass ein printed broadside, wey dey recruit men of color to enlist insyd de U.S. military after de [[Emancipation Proclamation]].]] Na dem bia Bowser ein work on de first banner thru a commission dem award by de Contraband Relief Association (CRA), an organization wey be headed by Elizabeth Keckley, de formerly enslaved woman wey cam be Mary Todd Lincoln ein dressmaker. Na e then be presented by de CRA to de leaders of 1st United States Colored Infantry.<ref>Moniz. "Making money and doing good: The story of an African American power couple from the 1800s," Smithsonian National Museum of American History.</ref> Plus respect to de oda Bowser-designed battle flags, na historians at de Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission note dat:<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> <blockquote>''The 127th and 3rd regiments marched carrying banners reading 'We will prove ourselves men' and 'Rather Die Freemen, Than Live To Be Slaves.' Beneath these, black soldiers protect white women representing Columbia, the symbol of the republic.'' ''The 45th's banner, proclaiming 'One Cause, One Country,' shows a black soldier proudly holding an American flag in front of a bust of George Washington as black troops fight in the background.'' ''The 24th's banner shows a black soldier ascending a hill, his arms outstretched in prayer, beneath the words 'Let Soldiers in War, Be Citizens in Peace.'''</blockquote> [[File:JBrown_by_DB_Bowser_1865.jpg|thumb|Bowser ein 1865 portrait of abolitionist John Brown. Although na Brown die insyd 1859, na de two meet at Bowser ein [[Underground Railroad]] safehouse.]] Insyd 1865, na Bowser sanso paint a portrait of Lincoln, wey dey work from an image of de presido wey na dem later use to create America ein post-Civil War five-dollar bill.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> [[File:Portrait_of_Abraham_Lincoln_by_David_Bustill_Bowser.jpg|thumb|Bowser ein 1865 portrait of [[Abraham Lincoln]].]] 57c2iur2gy6n0kg5jgupbyxgne4q3zx 63808 63729 2025-06-17T09:33:50Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Post-war life" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277115818|David Bustill Bowser]]" 63808 wikitext text/x-wiki '''David Bustill Bowser''' (January 16, 1820, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – June 30, 1900, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) na he be a 19th-century African-American ornamental artist, portraitist, den social activist.<ref>Lewis, Samella S. ''African American art and artists''. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2003.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Grand United Order Odd Fellows America [membership certificate] [graphic]. {{!}} Library Company of Philadelphia Digital Collections|url=https://digital.librarycompany.org/islandora/object/digitool:64192/print|access-date=2024-06-21|website=digital.librarycompany.org|language=en}}</ref> Na he design battle flags for eleven African-American regiments during de American Civil War wey na he paint portraits of prominent Americans, wey dey include U.S. Presido [[Abraham Lincoln]] den abolitionist John Brown. Na he be politically active thru out much of ein adult life, na he be a contributor to de [[Underground Railroad]] wey na he sanso help to secure de post-war passage of key civil rights legislation insyd Pennsylvania.<ref>"[http://digitalnewspapers.libraries.psu.edu/olive/apa/civilwar/SharedView.Article.aspx?href=DEB%2F1867%2F08%2F15&id=Ar00205&sk=6609DE64 Pennsylvania Equal Rights League]{{Dead link|date=November 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ''Daily Evening Bulletin'', August 15, 1867, p. 2.</ref> As a major figure insyd de Grand United Order of Odd Fellows, na he design broadsides den regalia give de organization.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection|url=http://archive.org/details/artisxxxxxxxxblinc|title=Artists of Abraham Lincoln portraits|date=1893|others=Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection}}</ref> Na de Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission describe Bowser as an artist wey na ein "works be de first widely viewed, positive images of African Americans painted by an African American".<ref>"[http://explorepahistory.com/hmarker.php?markerId=1-A-18D David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker]," in "Explore PA History." Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, retrieved online February 23, 2019.</ref> == Formative years == Na dem born am insyd Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on January 16, 1820, na David Bustill Bowser be a grandson of Cyrus Bustill (1732–1806), a formerly enslaved man wey purchase ein freedom wey he go on to become a founding member of Philadelphia ein Free African Society, den a son of oyster house proprietor Jeremiah Bowser (1766–1856), wey na ein freedom be purchased by a group of Philadelphia Quakers after na dem arrest am for he be a fugitive slave.<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=QQVQAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Jeremiah+Bowser%22+and+%22fugitive+slave%22+and+Philadelphia&pg=PA413 Fugitive Slaves]." Friends' Intelligencer and Journal, Vol. 55, p. 413. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Friends' Intelligencer Association, Limited, 1898.</ref> A member of de prominent Bustill family, na he be a cousin den student of artist Robert Douglass Jr., wey train at de Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts wey na he be a pupil of Thomas Sully.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Porter|first=James A.|url=https://archive.org/details/modernnegroart0000port|title=Modern Negro Art|date=1992|publisher=Howard University Press|isbn=0882581635|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=26851043|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> Na David Bustill Bowser sanso attend de private school wey be operated by Douglass ein sisto, Sarah Mapps Douglass.<ref>"[http://coloredconventions.org/exhibits/show/mobilitymigration1855/delegates/robert-douglass-jr--2 Robert Douglass, Jr.]," in "Mobility, Migration, and the 1855 Philadelphia National Convention," in "Colored Conventions: Bringing Nineteenth-Century Black Organizing to Life." Newark, Delaware: University of Delaware, Library, retrieved online February 23, 2019.</ref> Na he marry to seamstress Elizabeth Harriet Stevens Gray (June 13, 1831 – November 29, 1908), David Bustill Bowser den ein wifey be de parents of artist Raphael Bowser den Ida Elizabeth (Bowser) Asbury (1870–1955), a violinist den music teacher. Na dem be respected for dema civic engagement den philanthropy, David B. den Elizabeth Bowser support dema family by designing den painting banners, signs, uniform hats den oda regalia give fraternal associations, political groups, den volunteer fire companies insyd den beyond Philadelphia.<ref>Moniz, Amanda B. "[http://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/bowser Making money and doing good: The story of an African American power couple from the 1800s]," in "O Say Can You See?" Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian National Museum of American History, February 9, 2018.</ref> == Mid-1800s den de American Civil War == During de 1840s, na Bowser paint banners give a diverse range of clients, wey dey include de Know Nothing Party, wey na he receive a commission make he paint de portrait of prominent abolitionist den real estate developer [[Jacob C. White]]. Active insyd dat decade ein efforts make dem repeal de clause insyd Pennsylvania's Constitution wich na prohibit blacks from voting, na Bowser den ein family sanso cam be so involved plus de abolition movement wey na dema home cam be a stop on de [[Underground Railroad]]. Insyd 1858, na politics dwn advocacy merge plus art wen na Bower paint de portrait of abolitionist John Brown while na Brown dey visit de Bowser home. During dis same period, na Bowser sanso plete work on ein painting, ''The Firebell in the Night''.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> [[File:Odd_Fellows_David_Bustill_Bowser.jpg|left|thumb|255x255px|Bowser ein 1844 Grand United Order of Odd Fellows membership certificate; na Bowser likely create de chromolithograph insyd de center.]] Na he be active during dis phase of ein life plus de Grand United Order of Odd Fellows. As Grand Master of de Order insyd Philadelphia, na he deliver de keynote address at de Annual Moveable Committee of de G.U.O. of O.F. insyd Toronto, Canada on October 17, 1859, as na ein members celebrate de organization ein thirteenth anniversary. According to news reports, na dem "listen to am thru out plus much attention, wey na dem frequently rapturously applaud am" as na he "define in eloquent terms de nature of de work of Odd Fellows — especially dat great den leading principle, Charity," wey na he "remark upon de practical good wey be effected by Odd Fellowship, in alleviating distress den dey bestow chaw of de comforts of life upon de aged den infirm of de Order, as well as dem dey confer benefactions upon de widow den orphan."<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83035143/1859-10-11/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=1789&index=9&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 Odd Fellows' Celebration]." Cleveland, Ohio: ''Cleveland Morning Leader'', October 11, 1859, p. 2.</ref> During de American Civil War, na Bowser join plus chaw oda prominent members of Philadelphia ein African-American community make dem begin recruiting soldiers insyd 1862<ref>"[http://digitalnewspapers.libraries.psu.edu/olive/apa/civilwar/SharedView.Article.aspx?href=PDP%2F1862%2F08%2F07&id=Ar00203&sk=D07A53D9 How the Colored People Look Upon the War]," in "The City." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ''The Press'', August 7, 1862, p. 2.</ref> insyd de event dat de federal government go permit large numbers of black soldiers to enlist following de 1863 announcement of de [[Emancipation Proclamation]] by [[Abraham Lincoln|Presido Abraham Lincoln]]. Na Bowser be then commissioned insyd early 1863 make he design banners den battle flags for eleven of those African-American regiments in preparation for dema respective mustering at Camp William Penn, wich na dey locate just outsyd of Philadelphia.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref><ref>Sauers, Richard A. ''Advance The Colors: Pennsylvania Civil War Battle Flags'', Vol. 1, pp. 40-57. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Capitol Preservation Committee, 1987 and 1991.</ref><ref>Smith, Eric Ledell, "Painted with Pride in the U.S.A.," in ''Pennsylvania Heritage'', Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 24-31. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Heritage Foundation, 2001.</ref> [[File:Men_of_Color_Civil_War_Recruitment_Broadside_1863.png|thumb|Insyd 1863, na Bowser be among 54 Black Philadelphian community leaders make dem sign Frederick Douglass ein printed broadside, wey dey recruit men of color to enlist insyd de U.S. military after de [[Emancipation Proclamation]].]] Na dem bia Bowser ein work on de first banner thru a commission dem award by de Contraband Relief Association (CRA), an organization wey be headed by Elizabeth Keckley, de formerly enslaved woman wey cam be Mary Todd Lincoln ein dressmaker. Na e then be presented by de CRA to de leaders of 1st United States Colored Infantry.<ref>Moniz. "Making money and doing good: The story of an African American power couple from the 1800s," Smithsonian National Museum of American History.</ref> Plus respect to de oda Bowser-designed battle flags, na historians at de Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission note dat:<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> <blockquote>''The 127th and 3rd regiments marched carrying banners reading 'We will prove ourselves men' and 'Rather Die Freemen, Than Live To Be Slaves.' Beneath these, black soldiers protect white women representing Columbia, the symbol of the republic.'' ''The 45th's banner, proclaiming 'One Cause, One Country,' shows a black soldier proudly holding an American flag in front of a bust of George Washington as black troops fight in the background.'' ''The 24th's banner shows a black soldier ascending a hill, his arms outstretched in prayer, beneath the words 'Let Soldiers in War, Be Citizens in Peace.'''</blockquote> [[File:JBrown_by_DB_Bowser_1865.jpg|thumb|Bowser ein 1865 portrait of abolitionist John Brown. Although na Brown die insyd 1859, na de two meet at Bowser ein [[Underground Railroad]] safehouse.]] Insyd 1865, na Bowser sanso paint a portrait of Lincoln, wey dey work from an image of de presido wey na dem later use to create America ein post-Civil War five-dollar bill.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> [[File:Portrait_of_Abraham_Lincoln_by_David_Bustill_Bowser.jpg|thumb|Bowser ein 1865 portrait of [[Abraham Lincoln]].]] == Post-war life == Post-war, na Bowser continue ein involvement plus de Grand and United Order of Odd Fellows, ultimately he cam be a G.U.O. of O.F. officer,<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1880-05-12/ed-1/seq-4/#date1=1789&index=4&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 The G.U.O. OF O.F.]," in "Local News." Washington, D.C.: ''The Evening Star'', May 12, 1880, p. 4.</ref><ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1883-05-11/ed-1/seq-1/#date1=1789&index=10&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 The G.U.O. OF O.F.]," in "Local News." Washington, D.C.: ''The Evening Star'', May 11, 1883, p. 1.</ref> wey na he sanso be active plus chaw oda black fraternal orders buh, artistically, na ein creativity den productivity be limited by ein inability to obtain additional major commissions. As a result, na he den ein wifey increasingly turn to designing den dey produce organizational banners den regalia.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> Frequently he be involve insyd ein community as a civic leader, wey he sanso cam increasingly be active insyd politics. Insyd 1867, na dem appoint am by de leadership of de Pennsylvania Equal Rights League, plus William D. Forten den [[Octavius Catto|Octavius V. Catto]], make dem represent de League insyd securing "passage of a bill thru de Legislature wey dey forbid de exclusion of persons from public conveyances" anywer insyd Pennsylvania "on account of race anaa color." Na dem be successful.<ref>"Pennsylvania Equal Rights League," ''Daily Evening Bulletin'', August 15, 1867, p. 2.</ref> Insyd 1870, na dem select am to preside over de "jubilee procession" den "mass meeting" wich na e take place at Philadelphia ein Horticultural Hall on April 26. Na among those in attendance be "members of de Union League den oda prominent citizens," wey dey include Lucretia Mott, Passmore Williamson den Judge Paxson; de Rev. James A. Jones, wey na "open de proceedings plus prayer"; Robert Purvis, wey na he deliver an address; Jacob C. White, Jr., wey na he "read de proclamation of de ratification of de fifteenth amendment"; den de Hon. Galusha A. Grow, Frederick Douglass, General Harry White, den Alexander P. Colesberry, wey subsequently deliver formal addresses. Afterward, na de group approve a resolution wich na e "recognize de Anti-Slavery Society, de Republican party den press, de Equal Rights League, John Brown, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, Charles Sumner, William Lloyd Garrison, Horace Greeley, Lucretia Mott, den de whole army of pioneers wey speak anaa dem venture heroic deeds in behalf of dema oppressed people, as among de human agencies wey be crystallized into law de Declaration for wich wona poppies die; wey na dem regard de restoration of dis privilege as a vindication of popular government, den dat therein dem recognize dema just claims to all de franchises dem grant to any oda class of dema fellow-citizens; dat insyd de future, as insyd de past, ddm go be found on de side of loyalty den patriotism [plus] an unfaltering adherence to de Republican party."<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83025925/1870-04-27/ed-1/seq-3/#date1=1789&index=3&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 The Jubilee]." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Evening Telegraph (fifth edition), April 27, 1870, p. 3.</ref> As vice pee of de Pennsylvania Equal Rights League, na Bowser sanso be among those wey motivate de organization ein membership make dem meet plus Presido Grant at de White House on November 26, 1872 "''for the purpose ... of urging upon him the importance of recommending in his annual message to Congress, a request kindred to the 'Fifteenth Amendment,' by the recommendation of the passage of such laws as will require that all the citizens of this country shall be protected from insult and outrage on the highways of the nation, and secured in all their 'public rights' — that all may have the full benefit of the unfaltering loyalty which, at the fearful price of life and suffering, we gave to our country; the full benefit of our taxes which we fully, freely and uncomplainingly pay; that ... Congress [will] pass such laws as will protect us in the attempt to exercise and enjoy our civil rights."'' According to a report insyd de December 14, 1872 edition of The Weekly Louisianian, na de group "be very cordially received by de Presido"; however, while na Grant acknowledge dat "[a]ll citizens undoubtedly in all respects for be equal" den dat further protections for dema civil rights "for come," na he sanso informed de group say dema request "belong[ed] more properly to de next Administration."<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83016632/1872-12-14/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=1789&index=1&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 Pennsylvania Equal Rights and President Grant]." New Orleans, Louisiana: ''The Weekly Louisianian'', December 14, 1871.</ref> Insyd 1875, na Bowser sue Alfred L. Jones of Baltimore insyd court for violating ein patent of a chromolithographic image wey na he (Bowser) design give de Odd Fellows.<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045081/1875-01-15/ed-1/seq-4/#date1=1789&index=8&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 Erledigung eines Patentprozesses]" ("Completion of a Patent Process"). Baltimore, Maryland: Der Deutsche Correspondent, January 15, 1874.</ref> [[File:Artists_of_Abraham_Lincoln_portraits_(1893)_(14754962586).jpg|thumb|Bowser dem photograph insyd 1893.]] tbj5yar0x20wogc46hvs3rkfzbrhqxn 63829 63808 2025-06-17T10:32:06Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Death, interment and legacy" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277115818|David Bustill Bowser]]" 63829 wikitext text/x-wiki '''David Bustill Bowser''' (January 16, 1820, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – June 30, 1900, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) na he be a 19th-century African-American ornamental artist, portraitist, den social activist.<ref>Lewis, Samella S. ''African American art and artists''. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2003.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Grand United Order Odd Fellows America [membership certificate] [graphic]. {{!}} Library Company of Philadelphia Digital Collections|url=https://digital.librarycompany.org/islandora/object/digitool:64192/print|access-date=2024-06-21|website=digital.librarycompany.org|language=en}}</ref> Na he design battle flags for eleven African-American regiments during de American Civil War wey na he paint portraits of prominent Americans, wey dey include U.S. Presido [[Abraham Lincoln]] den abolitionist John Brown. Na he be politically active thru out much of ein adult life, na he be a contributor to de [[Underground Railroad]] wey na he sanso help to secure de post-war passage of key civil rights legislation insyd Pennsylvania.<ref>"[http://digitalnewspapers.libraries.psu.edu/olive/apa/civilwar/SharedView.Article.aspx?href=DEB%2F1867%2F08%2F15&id=Ar00205&sk=6609DE64 Pennsylvania Equal Rights League]{{Dead link|date=November 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ''Daily Evening Bulletin'', August 15, 1867, p. 2.</ref> As a major figure insyd de Grand United Order of Odd Fellows, na he design broadsides den regalia give de organization.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection|url=http://archive.org/details/artisxxxxxxxxblinc|title=Artists of Abraham Lincoln portraits|date=1893|others=Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection}}</ref> Na de Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission describe Bowser as an artist wey na ein "works be de first widely viewed, positive images of African Americans painted by an African American".<ref>"[http://explorepahistory.com/hmarker.php?markerId=1-A-18D David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker]," in "Explore PA History." Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, retrieved online February 23, 2019.</ref> == Formative years == Na dem born am insyd Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on January 16, 1820, na David Bustill Bowser be a grandson of Cyrus Bustill (1732–1806), a formerly enslaved man wey purchase ein freedom wey he go on to become a founding member of Philadelphia ein Free African Society, den a son of oyster house proprietor Jeremiah Bowser (1766–1856), wey na ein freedom be purchased by a group of Philadelphia Quakers after na dem arrest am for he be a fugitive slave.<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=QQVQAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Jeremiah+Bowser%22+and+%22fugitive+slave%22+and+Philadelphia&pg=PA413 Fugitive Slaves]." Friends' Intelligencer and Journal, Vol. 55, p. 413. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Friends' Intelligencer Association, Limited, 1898.</ref> A member of de prominent Bustill family, na he be a cousin den student of artist Robert Douglass Jr., wey train at de Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts wey na he be a pupil of Thomas Sully.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Porter|first=James A.|url=https://archive.org/details/modernnegroart0000port|title=Modern Negro Art|date=1992|publisher=Howard University Press|isbn=0882581635|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=26851043|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> Na David Bustill Bowser sanso attend de private school wey be operated by Douglass ein sisto, Sarah Mapps Douglass.<ref>"[http://coloredconventions.org/exhibits/show/mobilitymigration1855/delegates/robert-douglass-jr--2 Robert Douglass, Jr.]," in "Mobility, Migration, and the 1855 Philadelphia National Convention," in "Colored Conventions: Bringing Nineteenth-Century Black Organizing to Life." Newark, Delaware: University of Delaware, Library, retrieved online February 23, 2019.</ref> Na he marry to seamstress Elizabeth Harriet Stevens Gray (June 13, 1831 – November 29, 1908), David Bustill Bowser den ein wifey be de parents of artist Raphael Bowser den Ida Elizabeth (Bowser) Asbury (1870–1955), a violinist den music teacher. Na dem be respected for dema civic engagement den philanthropy, David B. den Elizabeth Bowser support dema family by designing den painting banners, signs, uniform hats den oda regalia give fraternal associations, political groups, den volunteer fire companies insyd den beyond Philadelphia.<ref>Moniz, Amanda B. "[http://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/bowser Making money and doing good: The story of an African American power couple from the 1800s]," in "O Say Can You See?" Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian National Museum of American History, February 9, 2018.</ref> == Mid-1800s den de American Civil War == During de 1840s, na Bowser paint banners give a diverse range of clients, wey dey include de Know Nothing Party, wey na he receive a commission make he paint de portrait of prominent abolitionist den real estate developer [[Jacob C. White]]. Active insyd dat decade ein efforts make dem repeal de clause insyd Pennsylvania's Constitution wich na prohibit blacks from voting, na Bowser den ein family sanso cam be so involved plus de abolition movement wey na dema home cam be a stop on de [[Underground Railroad]]. Insyd 1858, na politics dwn advocacy merge plus art wen na Bower paint de portrait of abolitionist John Brown while na Brown dey visit de Bowser home. During dis same period, na Bowser sanso plete work on ein painting, ''The Firebell in the Night''.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> [[File:Odd_Fellows_David_Bustill_Bowser.jpg|left|thumb|255x255px|Bowser ein 1844 Grand United Order of Odd Fellows membership certificate; na Bowser likely create de chromolithograph insyd de center.]] Na he be active during dis phase of ein life plus de Grand United Order of Odd Fellows. As Grand Master of de Order insyd Philadelphia, na he deliver de keynote address at de Annual Moveable Committee of de G.U.O. of O.F. insyd Toronto, Canada on October 17, 1859, as na ein members celebrate de organization ein thirteenth anniversary. According to news reports, na dem "listen to am thru out plus much attention, wey na dem frequently rapturously applaud am" as na he "define in eloquent terms de nature of de work of Odd Fellows — especially dat great den leading principle, Charity," wey na he "remark upon de practical good wey be effected by Odd Fellowship, in alleviating distress den dey bestow chaw of de comforts of life upon de aged den infirm of de Order, as well as dem dey confer benefactions upon de widow den orphan."<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83035143/1859-10-11/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=1789&index=9&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 Odd Fellows' Celebration]." Cleveland, Ohio: ''Cleveland Morning Leader'', October 11, 1859, p. 2.</ref> During de American Civil War, na Bowser join plus chaw oda prominent members of Philadelphia ein African-American community make dem begin recruiting soldiers insyd 1862<ref>"[http://digitalnewspapers.libraries.psu.edu/olive/apa/civilwar/SharedView.Article.aspx?href=PDP%2F1862%2F08%2F07&id=Ar00203&sk=D07A53D9 How the Colored People Look Upon the War]," in "The City." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ''The Press'', August 7, 1862, p. 2.</ref> insyd de event dat de federal government go permit large numbers of black soldiers to enlist following de 1863 announcement of de [[Emancipation Proclamation]] by [[Abraham Lincoln|Presido Abraham Lincoln]]. Na Bowser be then commissioned insyd early 1863 make he design banners den battle flags for eleven of those African-American regiments in preparation for dema respective mustering at Camp William Penn, wich na dey locate just outsyd of Philadelphia.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref><ref>Sauers, Richard A. ''Advance The Colors: Pennsylvania Civil War Battle Flags'', Vol. 1, pp. 40-57. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Capitol Preservation Committee, 1987 and 1991.</ref><ref>Smith, Eric Ledell, "Painted with Pride in the U.S.A.," in ''Pennsylvania Heritage'', Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 24-31. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Heritage Foundation, 2001.</ref> [[File:Men_of_Color_Civil_War_Recruitment_Broadside_1863.png|thumb|Insyd 1863, na Bowser be among 54 Black Philadelphian community leaders make dem sign Frederick Douglass ein printed broadside, wey dey recruit men of color to enlist insyd de U.S. military after de [[Emancipation Proclamation]].]] Na dem bia Bowser ein work on de first banner thru a commission dem award by de Contraband Relief Association (CRA), an organization wey be headed by Elizabeth Keckley, de formerly enslaved woman wey cam be Mary Todd Lincoln ein dressmaker. Na e then be presented by de CRA to de leaders of 1st United States Colored Infantry.<ref>Moniz. "Making money and doing good: The story of an African American power couple from the 1800s," Smithsonian National Museum of American History.</ref> Plus respect to de oda Bowser-designed battle flags, na historians at de Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission note dat:<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> <blockquote>''The 127th and 3rd regiments marched carrying banners reading 'We will prove ourselves men' and 'Rather Die Freemen, Than Live To Be Slaves.' Beneath these, black soldiers protect white women representing Columbia, the symbol of the republic.'' ''The 45th's banner, proclaiming 'One Cause, One Country,' shows a black soldier proudly holding an American flag in front of a bust of George Washington as black troops fight in the background.'' ''The 24th's banner shows a black soldier ascending a hill, his arms outstretched in prayer, beneath the words 'Let Soldiers in War, Be Citizens in Peace.'''</blockquote> [[File:JBrown_by_DB_Bowser_1865.jpg|thumb|Bowser ein 1865 portrait of abolitionist John Brown. Although na Brown die insyd 1859, na de two meet at Bowser ein [[Underground Railroad]] safehouse.]] Insyd 1865, na Bowser sanso paint a portrait of Lincoln, wey dey work from an image of de presido wey na dem later use to create America ein post-Civil War five-dollar bill.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> [[File:Portrait_of_Abraham_Lincoln_by_David_Bustill_Bowser.jpg|thumb|Bowser ein 1865 portrait of [[Abraham Lincoln]].]] == Post-war life == Post-war, na Bowser continue ein involvement plus de Grand and United Order of Odd Fellows, ultimately he cam be a G.U.O. of O.F. officer,<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1880-05-12/ed-1/seq-4/#date1=1789&index=4&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 The G.U.O. OF O.F.]," in "Local News." Washington, D.C.: ''The Evening Star'', May 12, 1880, p. 4.</ref><ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1883-05-11/ed-1/seq-1/#date1=1789&index=10&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 The G.U.O. OF O.F.]," in "Local News." Washington, D.C.: ''The Evening Star'', May 11, 1883, p. 1.</ref> wey na he sanso be active plus chaw oda black fraternal orders buh, artistically, na ein creativity den productivity be limited by ein inability to obtain additional major commissions. As a result, na he den ein wifey increasingly turn to designing den dey produce organizational banners den regalia.<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> Frequently he be involve insyd ein community as a civic leader, wey he sanso cam increasingly be active insyd politics. Insyd 1867, na dem appoint am by de leadership of de Pennsylvania Equal Rights League, plus William D. Forten den [[Octavius Catto|Octavius V. Catto]], make dem represent de League insyd securing "passage of a bill thru de Legislature wey dey forbid de exclusion of persons from public conveyances" anywer insyd Pennsylvania "on account of race anaa color." Na dem be successful.<ref>"Pennsylvania Equal Rights League," ''Daily Evening Bulletin'', August 15, 1867, p. 2.</ref> Insyd 1870, na dem select am to preside over de "jubilee procession" den "mass meeting" wich na e take place at Philadelphia ein Horticultural Hall on April 26. Na among those in attendance be "members of de Union League den oda prominent citizens," wey dey include Lucretia Mott, Passmore Williamson den Judge Paxson; de Rev. James A. Jones, wey na "open de proceedings plus prayer"; Robert Purvis, wey na he deliver an address; Jacob C. White, Jr., wey na he "read de proclamation of de ratification of de fifteenth amendment"; den de Hon. Galusha A. Grow, Frederick Douglass, General Harry White, den Alexander P. Colesberry, wey subsequently deliver formal addresses. Afterward, na de group approve a resolution wich na e "recognize de Anti-Slavery Society, de Republican party den press, de Equal Rights League, John Brown, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, Charles Sumner, William Lloyd Garrison, Horace Greeley, Lucretia Mott, den de whole army of pioneers wey speak anaa dem venture heroic deeds in behalf of dema oppressed people, as among de human agencies wey be crystallized into law de Declaration for wich wona poppies die; wey na dem regard de restoration of dis privilege as a vindication of popular government, den dat therein dem recognize dema just claims to all de franchises dem grant to any oda class of dema fellow-citizens; dat insyd de future, as insyd de past, ddm go be found on de side of loyalty den patriotism [plus] an unfaltering adherence to de Republican party."<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83025925/1870-04-27/ed-1/seq-3/#date1=1789&index=3&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 The Jubilee]." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Evening Telegraph (fifth edition), April 27, 1870, p. 3.</ref> As vice pee of de Pennsylvania Equal Rights League, na Bowser sanso be among those wey motivate de organization ein membership make dem meet plus Presido Grant at de White House on November 26, 1872 "''for the purpose ... of urging upon him the importance of recommending in his annual message to Congress, a request kindred to the 'Fifteenth Amendment,' by the recommendation of the passage of such laws as will require that all the citizens of this country shall be protected from insult and outrage on the highways of the nation, and secured in all their 'public rights' — that all may have the full benefit of the unfaltering loyalty which, at the fearful price of life and suffering, we gave to our country; the full benefit of our taxes which we fully, freely and uncomplainingly pay; that ... Congress [will] pass such laws as will protect us in the attempt to exercise and enjoy our civil rights."'' According to a report insyd de December 14, 1872 edition of The Weekly Louisianian, na de group "be very cordially received by de Presido"; however, while na Grant acknowledge dat "[a]ll citizens undoubtedly in all respects for be equal" den dat further protections for dema civil rights "for come," na he sanso informed de group say dema request "belong[ed] more properly to de next Administration."<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83016632/1872-12-14/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=1789&index=1&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 Pennsylvania Equal Rights and President Grant]." New Orleans, Louisiana: ''The Weekly Louisianian'', December 14, 1871.</ref> Insyd 1875, na Bowser sue Alfred L. Jones of Baltimore insyd court for violating ein patent of a chromolithographic image wey na he (Bowser) design give de Odd Fellows.<ref>"[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045081/1875-01-15/ed-1/seq-4/#date1=1789&index=8&rows=20&searchType=advanced&language=&sequence=0&words=B+Bowser+David&proxdistance=5&date2=1963&ortext=&proxtext=&phrasetext=%22David+B.+Bowser%22&andtext=&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 Erledigung eines Patentprozesses]" ("Completion of a Patent Process"). Baltimore, Maryland: Der Deutsche Correspondent, January 15, 1874.</ref> [[File:Artists_of_Abraham_Lincoln_portraits_(1893)_(14754962586).jpg|thumb|Bowser dem photograph insyd 1893.]] == Death, interment den legacy == Na Bowser die insyd Philadelphia on June 30, 1900, wey na dem bury am at de Eden Cemetery insyd Collingdale, Pennsylvania.<ref>{{cite web|date=10 February 2021|title=Historic Eden Cemetery: Preserving Memory and Protecting Legacy|url=https://pahistoricpreservation.com/historic-eden-cemetery-preserving-memory-and-protecting-legacy/|access-date=23 March 2023|website=www.pahistoricpreservation.com|publisher=Pennsylvania Historic Preservation Office}}</ref> During de 1940s, na a major portion of ein legacy be nearly obscured forever wen na dem remove de original Civil War battle flags wey he design from de military museum at West Point, wer na dem store am since de war. After dem throw way de flags, na all wey remain be de seven images dem describe above (under "American Civil War").<ref name="auto">"David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker," in "Explore PA History," Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.</ref> plld2ltt6y4s49ytubm1rhyahbmlv0i 0 17329 63420 2025-06-16T12:55:32Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63420 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa pzsle1ahm2bwlfobca07lnss84fdarj 63421 63420 2025-06-16T12:59:43Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63421 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. It is also eaten in some West African countries, such as Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. It is made from dried yam peelings called jaling, which have been grounded into flour and steamed. Wasawasa is mostly eaten with spicy sauces and sometimes garnished with vegetables, accompanied with shea butter or raw groundnut oil and fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> Wasawasa is sometimes served with beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> e3oawehk2y0wbvbtoveq10w6vtt8gzj 63422 63421 2025-06-16T13:02:53Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63422 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. It is made from dried yam peelings called jaling, which have been grounded into flour and steamed. Wasawasa is mostly eaten with spicy sauces and sometimes garnished with vegetables, accompanied with shea butter or raw groundnut oil and fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> Wasawasa is sometimes served with beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> 2onppelnnpfk6epwiae1zl6mwfcwrcj 63423 63422 2025-06-16T13:05:14Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63423 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. It is made from dried yam peelings called jaling, which have been grounded into flour and steamed. Wasawasa is mostly eaten with spicy sauces and sometimes garnished with vegetables, accompanied with shea butter or raw groundnut oil and fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> Wasawasa is sometimes served with beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> juynlwp877z4jasn9zcuyjmf70zko7j 63424 63423 2025-06-16T13:07:32Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63424 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. It is made from dried yam peelings called jaling, which have been grounded into flour and steamed. Wasawasa is mostly eaten with spicy sauces and sometimes garnished with vegetables, accompanied with shea butter or raw groundnut oil and fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> Wasawasa is sometimes served with beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> hx0ox8ubo1o7cs75uluof22hflblhps 63425 63424 2025-06-16T13:15:06Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63425 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. Sometimes dem dey chop am plus spicy sauces and garnished am with some vegetables, accompanied with shea butter or raw groundnut oil and fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> Wasawasa is sometimes served with beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> 40s9yu4ko5egconibdwdhfrg337u5ov 63426 63425 2025-06-16T13:17:03Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63426 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. Sometimes dem dey chop am plus spicy sauces and garnished am with some vegetables, dem carry shea butter put for top or raw groundnut oil plus fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> Wasawasa is sometimes served with beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> smgj0pwkpmjanbep4fv87o1n5j5oxk8 63427 63426 2025-06-16T13:19:09Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63427 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. Sometimes dem dey chop am plus spicy sauces and garnished am with some vegetables, dem carry shea butter put for top or raw groundnut oil plus fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> More times dem dey serve Wasawasa plus beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> pkq6uzre7evqd2x6pww74r7jz5t6war 63428 63427 2025-06-16T13:25:38Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63428 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa [[File:Wasawasa.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Wasawasa.]] '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. Sometimes dem dey chop am plus spicy sauces and garnished am with some vegetables, dem carry shea butter put for top or raw groundnut oil plus fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> More times dem dey serve Wasawasa plus beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> == Ingredients for Wasawasa == chaw ingrdients dey wey dem fi use am make Wasawasa dish though these ingredients may be dependent on the choices of the beneficiaries but the most common or primary ingredients include; yam flour, salt, freshly ground pepper, water for steaming, onions, groundnut or shea butter oil.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayitey|first=Charles|date=2016-05-31|title=5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://yen.com.gh/53919-5-delicious-ghanaian-meals-strange-names.html|access-date=2020-01-25|website=Yen.com.gh - Ghana news.|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFEPIC">EPIC. [https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/ "Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms"]. ''Food Forever''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-18</span></span>.</cite></ref> It's cooked with a chamber pot and steamed until it's ready. It usually turns black after cooking. 6voxw903dt26jjja22qjsrx1ja54cfg 63429 63428 2025-06-16T13:30:48Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63429 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa [[File:Wasawasa.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Wasawasa.]] '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. Sometimes dem dey chop am plus spicy sauces and garnished am with some vegetables, dem carry shea butter put for top or raw groundnut oil plus fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> More times dem dey serve Wasawasa plus beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> == Ingredients for Wasawasa == chaw ingrdients dey wey dem fi use am make Wasawasa dish though these ingredients dey vary give di dependent on di choices of di person wey wan chop di Wasawasa. beneficiaries but the most common or primary ingredients include; yam flour, salt, freshly ground pepper, water for steaming, onions, groundnut or shea butter oil.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayitey|first=Charles|date=2016-05-31|title=5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://yen.com.gh/53919-5-delicious-ghanaian-meals-strange-names.html|access-date=2020-01-25|website=Yen.com.gh - Ghana news.|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFEPIC">EPIC. [https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/ "Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms"]. ''Food Forever''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-18</span></span>.</cite></ref> It's cooked with a chamber pot and steamed until it's ready. It usually turns black after cooking. 32qx12gpxnxpfglqfswvbudibsxm8fq 63430 63429 2025-06-16T13:33:13Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63430 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa [[File:Wasawasa.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Wasawasa.]] '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. Sometimes dem dey chop am plus spicy sauces and garnished am with some vegetables, dem carry shea butter put for top or raw groundnut oil plus fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> More times dem dey serve Wasawasa plus beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> == Ingredients for Wasawasa == chaw ingrdients dey wey dem fi use am make Wasawasa dish though these ingredients dey vary give di dependent on di choices of di person wey wan chop di Wasawasa.But di most common or primary ingredients bi; yam flour, salt, freshly ground pepper, water for steaming, onions, groundnut or shea butter oil.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayitey|first=Charles|date=2016-05-31|title=5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://yen.com.gh/53919-5-delicious-ghanaian-meals-strange-names.html|access-date=2020-01-25|website=Yen.com.gh - Ghana news.|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFEPIC">EPIC. [https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/ "Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms"]. ''Food Forever''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-18</span></span>.</cite></ref>It's cooked with a chamber pot and steamed until it's ready. It usually turns black after cooking. 4ckhd5rcvsylfr27abnq74zumhupuhh 63432 63430 2025-06-16T13:35:35Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63432 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa [[File:Wasawasa.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Wasawasa.]] '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. Sometimes dem dey chop am plus spicy sauces and garnished am with some vegetables, dem carry shea butter put for top or raw groundnut oil plus fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> More times dem dey serve Wasawasa plus beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> == Ingredients for Wasawasa == chaw ingrdients dey wey dem fi use am make Wasawasa dish though these ingredients dey vary give di dependent on di choices of di person wey wan chop di Wasawasa.But di most common or primary ingredients bi; yam flour, salt, freshly ground pepper, water for steaming, onions, groundnut or shea butter oil.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayitey|first=Charles|date=2016-05-31|title=5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://yen.com.gh/53919-5-delicious-ghanaian-meals-strange-names.html|access-date=2020-01-25|website=Yen.com.gh - Ghana news.|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFEPIC">EPIC. [https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/ "Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms"]. ''Food Forever''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-18</span></span>.</cite></ref>Dem de use chamber pot cook am and steamed am until e go done. It usually turns black after cooking. ie6b8myz2xm2vmzf57llexkdgwpoerz 63433 63432 2025-06-16T13:37:09Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63433 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa [[File:Wasawasa.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Wasawasa.]] '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. Sometimes dem dey chop am plus spicy sauces and garnished am with some vegetables, dem carry shea butter put for top or raw groundnut oil plus fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> More times dem dey serve Wasawasa plus beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> == Ingredients for Wasawasa == chaw ingrdients dey wey dem fi use am make Wasawasa dish though these ingredients dey vary give di dependent on di choices of di person wey wan chop di Wasawasa.But di most common or primary ingredients bi; yam flour, salt, freshly ground pepper, water for steaming, onions, groundnut or shea butter oil.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayitey|first=Charles|date=2016-05-31|title=5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://yen.com.gh/53919-5-delicious-ghanaian-meals-strange-names.html|access-date=2020-01-25|website=Yen.com.gh - Ghana news.|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFEPIC">EPIC. [https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/ "Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms"]. ''Food Forever''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-18</span></span>.</cite></ref>Dem de use chamber pot cook am and steamed am until e go done. Usually if you see am e dey look black wen dem cook am finish. ljs32x266xev9ien9itamjre8lhc2qh 63434 63433 2025-06-16T13:39:54Z Brothersja 3232 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1266737058|Wasawasa]]" 63434 wikitext text/x-wiki  Dis be wasawasa [[File:Wasawasa.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Wasawasa.]] '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. Sometimes dem dey chop am plus spicy sauces and garnished am with some vegetables, dem carry shea butter put for top or raw groundnut oil plus fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> More times dem dey serve Wasawasa plus beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> == Ingredients for Wasawasa == chaw ingrdients dey wey dem fi use am make Wasawasa dish though these ingredients dey vary give di dependent on di choices of di person wey wan chop di Wasawasa.But di most common or primary ingredients bi; yam flour, salt, freshly ground pepper, water for steaming, onions, groundnut or shea butter oil.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayitey|first=Charles|date=2016-05-31|title=5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://yen.com.gh/53919-5-delicious-ghanaian-meals-strange-names.html|access-date=2020-01-25|website=Yen.com.gh - Ghana news.|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFEPIC">EPIC. [https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/ "Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms"]. ''Food Forever''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-18</span></span>.</cite></ref>Dem de use chamber pot cook am and steamed am until e go done. Usually if you see am e dey look black wen dem cook am finish. == Nutrition == E dey carry carbohydrates and proteins give di body.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Zulaiha|first=Ziblim|date=2018-04-24|title=WASAWASA is an African food widely eaten by the Dagombas in the Northern &#91;sic&#93; region of Ghana it is…|url=https://medium.com/@zulaihaziblim6/wasawasa-is-an-african-food-widely-eaten-by-the-dagombas-in-the-northen-region-of-ghana-it-is-39aac4baaa95|access-date=2020-06-18|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref> 6jzklxmug7kc6cnhwsv220mwijmdica 63438 63434 2025-06-16T14:19:51Z Brothersja 3232 did a translation 63438 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ Databox }} Dis be wasawasa [[File:Wasawasa.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Wasawasa.]] '''Wasawasa be food wey people know am paa for northern region Wasawasa'''. Som of di West African Country de chop am, like Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria etc. Ebi dry yam peel wey dem de call jaling wey dem carry do am. Dem de ground am and turn am flour and steam am. Sometimes dem dey chop am plus spicy sauces and garnished am with some vegetables, dem carry shea butter put for top or raw groundnut oil plus fried fish.<ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}</ref> More times dem dey serve Wasawasa plus beans, pasta, and salad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2016|title=Recipe: 5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Recipe-5-delicious-Ghanaian-meals-with-strange-names-444736|access-date=2020-01-18|website=www.ghanaweb.com|language=en}}</ref> == Ingredients for Wasawasa == chaw ingrdients dey wey dem fi use am make Wasawasa dish though these ingredients dey vary give di dependent on di choices of di person wey wan chop di Wasawasa.But di most common or primary ingredients bi; yam flour, salt, freshly ground pepper, water for steaming, onions, groundnut or shea butter oil.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayitey|first=Charles|date=2016-05-31|title=5 delicious Ghanaian meals with strange names|url=https://yen.com.gh/53919-5-delicious-ghanaian-meals-strange-names.html|access-date=2020-01-25|website=Yen.com.gh - Ghana news.|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Food4ever">{{Cite web|last=EPIC|title=Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms|url=https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=Food Forever|language=en-US}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFEPIC">EPIC. [https://www.food4ever.org/news/wasa-wasa-with-scotch-mango-aioli-mushrooms/ "Wasa Wasa with Scotch Mango Aioli & Mushrooms"]. ''Food Forever''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-18</span></span>.</cite></ref>Dem de use chamber pot cook am and steamed am until e go done. Usually if you see am e dey look black wen dem cook am finish. == Nutrition == E dey carry carbohydrates and proteins give di body.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Zulaiha|first=Ziblim|date=2018-04-24|title=WASAWASA is an African food widely eaten by the Dagombas in the Northern &#91;sic&#93; region of Ghana it is…|url=https://medium.com/@zulaihaziblim6/wasawasa-is-an-african-food-widely-eaten-by-the-dagombas-in-the-northen-region-of-ghana-it-is-39aac4baaa95|access-date=2020-06-18|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref> 5547wdi7fqyxptrhyz73r9t23ggwu5u 0 17330 63446 2025-06-16T15:31:45Z Tiisu Sharif 1372 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1258584045|Afro-Anguillians]]" 63446 wikitext text/x-wiki == References and footnotes == iq16bod5ll7p9gn2bbaxugmvjhqqavk 0 17331 63449 2025-06-16T15:39:23Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1289592255|Hilary Beckles]]" 63449 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sir Hilary McDonald Beckles''' KA (born 11 August 1955) is a Barbadian historian. He be de current vice-chancellor of de University of de West Indies (UWI) den chairman of de CARICOM Reparations Commission. [[Category:Living people]] mcxzdiovgda1k885b37c35fvekh8dcu 63452 63449 2025-06-16T15:44:29Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63452 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sir Hilary McDonald Beckles''' KA (born 11 August 1955) is a Barbadian historian. He be de current vice-chancellor of de University of de West Indies (UWI) den chairman of de CARICOM Reparations Commission. Educated at de University of Hull insyd England, Beckles begin ein academic career at UWI den be granted a personal professorship at de age of 37, becoming de youngest insyd de university ein history. He be named pro-vice-chancellor den chairman of UWI ein Board for Undergraduate Studies insyd 1998, den insyd 2002 be named principal of de university ein Cave Hill campus. Although ein focus has mainly been on Afro-Caribbean history, especially de economic den social impacts of colonialism den de Atlantic slave trade, Beckles has sana had a longstanding involvement plus West Indian cricket den has previously served on de board of de West Indies Cricket Board (WICB). == Biography == === Early life === Dem born Beckles insyd Barbados, den begin ein secondary education at Coleridge den Parry Secondary School insyd Speightstown, Saint Peter, Barbados. He be sent to England to complete ein schooling, attending Pitmaston Secondary School den de Bournville College of Further Education in Birmingham. Beckles went on to de University of Hull, completing a BA (Hons) den PhD plus de university ein Department of Economic den Social History. [[Category:Living people]] moj411a4bpp5jt47xz3ad4e9cmvwb8d 63459 63452 2025-06-16T15:53:02Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63459 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sir Hilary McDonald Beckles''' KA (born 11 August 1955) is a Barbadian historian. He be de current vice-chancellor of de University of de West Indies (UWI) den chairman of de CARICOM Reparations Commission. Educated at de University of Hull insyd England, Beckles begin ein academic career at UWI den be granted a personal professorship at de age of 37, becoming de youngest insyd de university ein history. He be named pro-vice-chancellor den chairman of UWI ein Board for Undergraduate Studies insyd 1998, den insyd 2002 be named principal of de university ein Cave Hill campus. Although ein focus has mainly been on Afro-Caribbean history, especially de economic den social impacts of colonialism den de Atlantic slave trade, Beckles has sana had a longstanding involvement plus West Indian cricket den has previously served on de board of de West Indies Cricket Board (WICB). == Biography == === Early life === Dem born Beckles insyd Barbados, den begin ein secondary education at Coleridge den Parry Secondary School insyd Speightstown, Saint Peter, Barbados. He be sent to England to complete ein schooling, attending Pitmaston Secondary School den de Bournville College of Further Education in Birmingham. Beckles went on to de University of Hull, completing a BA (Hons) den PhD plus de university ein Department of Economic den Social History. === Academic career === Beckles join de University of de West Indies (UWI) as a history lecturer at ein campus insyd Mona, Jamaica insyd 1979, but transferred to ein Cave Hill campus insyd 1984. Having been named a senior research fellow at de London-based Institute of Commonwealth Studies insyd 1986, he was named Chairman of de History Department at UWI insyd 1992, a role he served insyd until 1996, den he subsequently served as dean of de Faculty of Humanities from 1994 to 1998. Beckles receiveda personal professorship insyd 1993, de university ein youngest appointment to de position. Ein work dey cover a variety of topics insyd de broader area of Afro-Caribbean history, plus works covering early slave rebellions insyd Barbados, de role of women insyd de slave trade, den de greater effects of colonialism on present Barbadian society. Oda works have focused more specifically on Barbadian history, wey include education, telecommunications, de labour movement, den sporting culture. === Involvement with cricket === Having authored several papers den essays on de role of cricket insyd British West Indian culture, Beckles be de driving force behind de establishment of de Centre for Cricket Research at de Cave Hill campus insyd 1994, which dey result insyd de refurbishment of de on-campus 3Ws Oval. Two years later, insyd 1996, he convince de West Indies Cricket Board (WICB) to organise a match between de touring New Zealanders den a team selected by de university ein vice-chancellor. Matches between touring sides den de Vice Chancellor ein XI have since become a regular, almost annual, event. Insyd 1999, Beckles publish a two-volume series on de history of cricket insyd de Caribbean, entitled ''The Development of West Indies Cricket''. Three years later, prior to de start of de 2002–03 cricket season, de WICB announce dat de expanded Red Stripe Bowl, de premier limited-overs competition insyd de West Indies, will feature de university ein cricket team. UWI ein two-season stint insyd de tournament be largely a result of Beckles ein efforts. He remain a director of what be now de C. L. R. James Centre for Cricket Research (named insyd honour of C. L. R. James), den sana be overall sports coordinator for de university. [[Category:Living people]] pn66qaerc17hqqcx6grwe78ebnsh4x4 63463 63459 2025-06-16T15:55:49Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63463 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sir Hilary McDonald Beckles''' KA (born 11 August 1955) is a Barbadian historian. He be de current vice-chancellor of de University of de West Indies (UWI) den chairman of de CARICOM Reparations Commission. Educated at de University of Hull insyd England, Beckles begin ein academic career at UWI den be granted a personal professorship at de age of 37, becoming de youngest insyd de university ein history. He be named pro-vice-chancellor den chairman of UWI ein Board for Undergraduate Studies insyd 1998, den insyd 2002 be named principal of de university ein Cave Hill campus. Although ein focus has mainly been on Afro-Caribbean history, especially de economic den social impacts of colonialism den de Atlantic slave trade, Beckles has sana had a longstanding involvement plus West Indian cricket den has previously served on de board of de West Indies Cricket Board (WICB). == Biography == === Early life === Dem born Beckles insyd Barbados, den begin ein secondary education at Coleridge den Parry Secondary School insyd Speightstown, Saint Peter, Barbados. He be sent to England to complete ein schooling, attending Pitmaston Secondary School den de Bournville College of Further Education in Birmingham. Beckles went on to de University of Hull, completing a BA (Hons) den PhD plus de university ein Department of Economic den Social History. === Academic career === Beckles join de University of de West Indies (UWI) as a history lecturer at ein campus insyd Mona, Jamaica insyd 1979, but transferred to ein Cave Hill campus insyd 1984. Having been named a senior research fellow at de London-based Institute of Commonwealth Studies insyd 1986, he was named Chairman of de History Department at UWI insyd 1992, a role he served insyd until 1996, den he subsequently served as dean of de Faculty of Humanities from 1994 to 1998. Beckles receiveda personal professorship insyd 1993, de university ein youngest appointment to de position. Ein work dey cover a variety of topics insyd de broader area of Afro-Caribbean history, plus works covering early slave rebellions insyd Barbados, de role of women insyd de slave trade, den de greater effects of colonialism on present Barbadian society. Oda works have focused more specifically on Barbadian history, wey include education, telecommunications, de labour movement, den sporting culture. === Involvement with cricket === Having authored several papers den essays on de role of cricket insyd British West Indian culture, Beckles be de driving force behind de establishment of de Centre for Cricket Research at de Cave Hill campus insyd 1994, which dey result insyd de refurbishment of de on-campus 3Ws Oval. Two years later, insyd 1996, he convince de West Indies Cricket Board (WICB) to organise a match between de touring New Zealanders den a team selected by de university ein vice-chancellor. Matches between touring sides den de Vice Chancellor ein XI have since become a regular, almost annual, event. Insyd 1999, Beckles publish a two-volume series on de history of cricket insyd de Caribbean, entitled ''The Development of West Indies Cricket''. Three years later, prior to de start of de 2002–03 cricket season, de WICB announce dat de expanded Red Stripe Bowl, de premier limited-overs competition insyd de West Indies, will feature de university ein cricket team. UWI ein two-season stint insyd de tournament be largely a result of Beckles ein efforts. He remain a director of what be now de C. L. R. James Centre for Cricket Research (named insyd honour of C. L. R. James), den sana be overall sports coordinator for de university. === Other positions === [edit source] Beckles serves on the editorial boards of several academic journals, including ''William and Mary Quarterly'', ''Journal of Caribbean History'', and ''Sports in Society'', and is an international editor for the ''Journal of American History''. Outside of academia, he has filled the following positions: * Leader of Barbados delegation, 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Director, ICC West Indies Cricket World Cup, Inc. (2005–2007) * Independent Director and Member of Corporate Governance & Ethics Committee, Sagicor Financial Corporation (2005 onwards) * Director, Sagicor Life Jamaica Limited (2006 onwards) * Board member, Association for the Study of the Worldwide African Diaspora (2013 – 2015) * Chair, CARICOM Reparations Commission == Awards and honours == [edit source] Beckles was named "Author of the Year" in 1991 by Barbados Cultural Promotions, and ''We Now Have a Country'', a documentary that he wrote, narrated, and co-directed, was named "Documentary of the Year" in 1993 by the Barbados Association of Journalists. The following year, he was named the inaugural winner of the UWI Vice Chancellor's Award for Excellence in the Field of Research. In 2004, Beckles was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters degree by his ''alma mater'', the University of Hull. He has since received equivalent honorary degrees from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana, in November 2009, and from the University of Glasgow, Scotland, in June 2011. In November 2007, Beckles was made a Knight of St. Andrew, the highest honour possible in the Order of Barbados. In December 2021, Beckles was awarded the Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda's Faithful and Meritorious Award's highest honour, the Cross and Plaque. The award recognises Beckle's "distinguished service to UWI and the Caribbean". == Criticism == Some of Beckles ein actions, regarding ein role insyd both sports den academics at de university, have been controversial. One commentator has accused him of engaging insyd de "exploitation of de nation ein traditional love of education den qualifications", referring to Beckles ein role insyd de university ein development as "empire-building"; Insyd May 2011, Beckles made a statement suggesting dat Chris Gayle be de "don" of West Indian cricket, comparing him to Jamaican drug lord Christopher Coke (otherwise known as "Dudus"). De West Indies Players ein Association (WIPA) subsequently write to de WICB den UWI asking for Beckles ein dismissal from de board, which do not happen. [[Category:Living people]] 4eexv7yzho9o9rq544mq4nx9gzcyet4 63466 63463 2025-06-16T15:58:01Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63466 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sir Hilary McDonald Beckles''' KA (born 11 August 1955) is a Barbadian historian. He be de current vice-chancellor of de University of de West Indies (UWI) den chairman of de CARICOM Reparations Commission. Educated at de University of Hull insyd England, Beckles begin ein academic career at UWI den be granted a personal professorship at de age of 37, becoming de youngest insyd de university ein history. He be named pro-vice-chancellor den chairman of UWI ein Board for Undergraduate Studies insyd 1998, den insyd 2002 be named principal of de university ein Cave Hill campus. Although ein focus has mainly been on Afro-Caribbean history, especially de economic den social impacts of colonialism den de Atlantic slave trade, Beckles has sana had a longstanding involvement plus West Indian cricket den has previously served on de board of de West Indies Cricket Board (WICB). == Biography == === Early life === Dem born Beckles insyd Barbados, den begin ein secondary education at Coleridge den Parry Secondary School insyd Speightstown, Saint Peter, Barbados. He be sent to England to complete ein schooling, attending Pitmaston Secondary School den de Bournville College of Further Education in Birmingham. Beckles went on to de University of Hull, completing a BA (Hons) den PhD plus de university ein Department of Economic den Social History. === Academic career === Beckles join de University of de West Indies (UWI) as a history lecturer at ein campus insyd Mona, Jamaica insyd 1979, but transferred to ein Cave Hill campus insyd 1984. Having been named a senior research fellow at de London-based Institute of Commonwealth Studies insyd 1986, he was named Chairman of de History Department at UWI insyd 1992, a role he served insyd until 1996, den he subsequently served as dean of de Faculty of Humanities from 1994 to 1998. Beckles receiveda personal professorship insyd 1993, de university ein youngest appointment to de position. Ein work dey cover a variety of topics insyd de broader area of Afro-Caribbean history, plus works covering early slave rebellions insyd Barbados, de role of women insyd de slave trade, den de greater effects of colonialism on present Barbadian society. Oda works have focused more specifically on Barbadian history, wey include education, telecommunications, de labour movement, den sporting culture. === Involvement with cricket === Having authored several papers den essays on de role of cricket insyd British West Indian culture, Beckles be de driving force behind de establishment of de Centre for Cricket Research at de Cave Hill campus insyd 1994, which dey result insyd de refurbishment of de on-campus 3Ws Oval. Two years later, insyd 1996, he convince de West Indies Cricket Board (WICB) to organise a match between de touring New Zealanders den a team selected by de university ein vice-chancellor. Matches between touring sides den de Vice Chancellor ein XI have since become a regular, almost annual, event. Insyd 1999, Beckles publish a two-volume series on de history of cricket insyd de Caribbean, entitled ''The Development of West Indies Cricket''. Three years later, prior to de start of de 2002–03 cricket season, de WICB announce dat de expanded Red Stripe Bowl, de premier limited-overs competition insyd de West Indies, will feature de university ein cricket team. UWI ein two-season stint insyd de tournament be largely a result of Beckles ein efforts. He remain a director of what be now de C. L. R. James Centre for Cricket Research (named insyd honour of C. L. R. James), den sana be overall sports coordinator for de university. === Other positions === [edit source] Beckles serves on the editorial boards of several academic journals, including ''William and Mary Quarterly'', ''Journal of Caribbean History'', and ''Sports in Society'', and is an international editor for the ''Journal of American History''. Outside of academia, he has filled the following positions: * Leader of Barbados delegation, 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Director, ICC West Indies Cricket World Cup, Inc. (2005–2007) * Independent Director and Member of Corporate Governance & Ethics Committee, Sagicor Financial Corporation (2005 onwards) * Director, Sagicor Life Jamaica Limited (2006 onwards) * Board member, Association for the Study of the Worldwide African Diaspora (2013 – 2015) * Chair, CARICOM Reparations Commission == Awards and honours == [edit source] Beckles was named "Author of the Year" in 1991 by Barbados Cultural Promotions, and ''We Now Have a Country'', a documentary that he wrote, narrated, and co-directed, was named "Documentary of the Year" in 1993 by the Barbados Association of Journalists. The following year, he was named the inaugural winner of the UWI Vice Chancellor's Award for Excellence in the Field of Research. In 2004, Beckles was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters degree by his ''alma mater'', the University of Hull. He has since received equivalent honorary degrees from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana, in November 2009, and from the University of Glasgow, Scotland, in June 2011. In November 2007, Beckles was made a Knight of St. Andrew, the highest honour possible in the Order of Barbados. In December 2021, Beckles was awarded the Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda's Faithful and Meritorious Award's highest honour, the Cross and Plaque. The award recognises Beckle's "distinguished service to UWI and the Caribbean". == Criticism == Some of Beckles ein actions, regarding ein role insyd both sports den academics at de university, have been controversial. One commentator has accused him of engaging insyd de "exploitation of de nation ein traditional love of education den qualifications", referring to Beckles ein role insyd de university ein development as "empire-building"; Insyd May 2011, Beckles made a statement suggesting dat Chris Gayle be de "don" of West Indian cricket, comparing him to Jamaican drug lord Christopher Coke (otherwise known as "Dudus"). De West Indies Players ein Association (WIPA) subsequently write to de WICB den UWI asking for Beckles ein dismissal from de board, which do not happen. == Selected bibliography == * ''Afro-Caribbean Women'' ''den Resistance to Slavery in Barbados'', Karnak House, 1988. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0907015260</nowiki> * ''De Development of West Indies Cricket: De Age of Globalization'', vol. 2, Pluto Press, 1999. 978-0745314723 * ''De Development of West Indies Cricket: De Age of Nationalism'', vol. 1, Pluto Press, 1999. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0745314624</nowiki> * ''Liberties Lost:'' ''De Indigenous Caribbean den Slave Systems'', plus Verene A. Shepherd, Cambridge University Press, 2004. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0521435444</nowiki> * ''A History of Barbados: From Amerindian Settlement to Caribbean Single Market'', Cambridge University Press, 2006. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0521678490</nowiki> * ''Britain'' ''ein Black Debt: Reparations for Caribbean Slavery den Native Genocide'', University of de West Indies Press, 2012. <nowiki>ISBN 978-9766402686</nowiki> * ''Cricket without a Cause: Fall'' ''den Rise of de Mighty West Indian Test Cricketers'', Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers, 2017. <nowiki>ISBN 978-9766379605</nowiki> * ''How Britain Underdeveloped'' ''de Caribbean: A Reparation Response to Europe ein Legacy of Plunder den Poverty'', University of de West Indies Press, 2021. <nowiki>ISBN 978-9766408695</nowiki> [[Category:Living people]] lzqxwfi9rjnbsk6dh0uxuj0xxct9zin 0 17332 63454 2025-06-16T15:46:57Z Tiisu Sharif 1372 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1274356886|Afro–Antiguans and Barbudans]]" 63454 wikitext text/x-wiki == References and footnotes == iq16bod5ll7p9gn2bbaxugmvjhqqavk 63461 63454 2025-06-16T15:54:02Z Tiisu Sharif 1372 i create de article 63461 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox |group = Afro–Antiguans den Barbudans |image = |caption = Distribution of Afro-Antiguans den Barbudans |population = Approx. 82,041 |regions = Antigua and Barbuda (Approx. 82,041) |languages = Antiguan and Barbudan Creole, English |religions = Christianity (primarily Protestantism) }} '''Afro–Antiguans den Barbudans''' be Antiguans den Barbudans wey dema ancestry be entirely or mostly African (especially West African). According to de 2011 census, 87% of Antigua den Barbuda ein population be Black den 4.4% be Mulatto.<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/antigua-and-barbuda/ |title=CIA - The World Factbook -- Antigua and Barbuda |publisher=CIA |access-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> == Origins == Most of de enslaved Africans wey dem bring go Antigua den Barbuda disembark from de Bight of Biafra (22,000 Africans) den de Gold Coast (16,000 Africans). Other African slaves come from de Windward Coast (11,000 Africans), de West Central Africa (9,000 Africans), de Bight of Benin (6,000 Africans), Senegambia (5,000 Africans), Guinea den Sierra Leone (4,000 Africans).<ref name="photobafriban">{{cite web |url=http://s1207.photobucket.com/user/oditous3/media/AfricanOriginsbroadregionsforCarribeanenglishfrenchnumbers.jpg.html |title=African origins of the slaves from British and former British Antilles}}</ref> == History == Settlers raise tobacco, indigo, ginger, den sugarcane as cash crops. Sir Christopher Codrington establish de first big sugar estate for Antigua for 1674, den lease Barbuda fi raise provisions for hin plantations. For de fifty years after Codrington establish hin initial plantation, de sugar industry become so profitable say plenty farmers replace other crops plus sugar, wey make am de economic backbone of de islands. Codrington den others bring slaves from Africa ein western coast fi work de plantations. Africans start dey arrive for Antigua den Barbuda for big numbers during de 1670s; dem soon become de largest racial group of Antigua den Barbuda.<ref>{{cite book |title=Africana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223}}</ref> Plus all others for de British Empire, Antiguan den Barbudan slaves get emancipation for 1834, but dem remain economically dependent upon de plantation owners. Economic opportunities for de new freedmen be limited by lack of surplus farming land, no access to credit, den economy wey build on agriculture rather than manufacturing. Poor labour conditions persist until 1939, when member of royal commission urge de formation of trade union movement.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} For de 20th-century dem redefine de role of Afro–Antiguans den Barbudans. De colonial social structure gradually start dey phase out plus de introduction of universal education den better economic opportunities.<ref name="Background">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2336.htm |title=Background Note: Antigua and Barbuda |access-date=2007-08-23}}</ref> == Statistics by Parish == '''Afro-Antiguans den Barbudans by Parish'''<ref name="redatam">{{cite web |url=https://redatam.org/binatg/RpWebEngine.exe/Portal?BASE=ATGPHC2011&lang=ENG |title=Antigua and Barbuda::Statistics Division/Redatam Webserver Statistical Process and Dissemination Tool |website=redatam.org |access-date=2021-12-05}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Parish Name !! Counts !! Percentage |- | Saint John's City || 18,366 || 84.86% |- | Saint John Rural || 24,861 || 84.31% |- | Saint Mary || 6,754 || 92.13% |- | Saint George || 7,122 || 89.29% |- | Saint Peter || 4,937 || 92.85% |- | Saint Philip || 3,028 || 91.15% |- | Saint Paul || 7,405 || 91.24% |- | Barbuda || 1,546 || 95.11% |} '''Place of Birth of Afro-Antiguans den Barbudans'''<ref name="redatam"/> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Parish Name !! Africa !! Other Latin or North American countries !! Other Caribbean countries !! Canada !! Other Asian countries !! Other European countries !! Dominica !! Dominican Republic !! Guyana !! Jamaica !! Monsterrat !! Antigua and Barbuda !! St. Kitts and Nevis !! St. Lucia !! St. Vincent and the Grenadines !! Syria !! Trinidad and Tobago !! United Kingdom !! USA !! USVI United States Virgin Islands !! Not Stated |- | Saint John's City || 93 || 6 || 119 || 20 || 3 || 3 || 1,071 || 139 || 1,791 || 1,311 || 221 || 12,553 || 86 || 152 || 143 || 0 || 67 || 42 || 306 || 69 || 170 |- | Saint John Rural || 113 || 20 || 223 || 74 || 4 || 9 || 1,340 || 62 || 1,614 || 1,613 || 244 || 17,527 || 120 || 200 || 286 || 0 || 119 || 131 || 767 || 128 || 265 |- | Saint Mary || 3 || 4 || 18 || 17 || 2 || 5 || 203 || 8 || 283 || 314 || 34 || 5,470 || 26 || 20 || 19 || 0 || 17 || 36 || 184 || 52 || 39 |- | Saint George || 14 || 3 || 69 || 23 || 1 || 2 || 239 || 15 || 273 || 279 || 61 || 5,463 || 37 || 113 || 56 || 0 || 31 || 56 || 244 || 42 || 98 |- | Saint Peter || 2 || 6 || 24 || 6 || 0 || 0 || 139 || 7 || 324 || 154 || 22 || 3,870 || 23 || 7 || 41 || 0 || 10 || 15 || 147 || 27 || 114 |- | Saint Philip || 4 || 2 || 14 || 9 || 1 || 2 || 81 || 4 || 99 || 92 || 6 || 2,444 || 7 || 9 || 18 || 0 || 6 || 9 || 123 || 16 || 81 |- | Saint Paul || 11 || 6 || 53 || 12 || 2 || 1 || 149 || 12 || 347 || 391 || 28 || 5,915 || 30 || 33 || 46 || 0 || 18 || 33 || 219 || 53 || 49 |- | Barbuda || 0 || 1 || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 || 22 || 0 || 39 || 19 || 4 || 1,409 || 6 || 1 || 7 || 0 || 0 || 6 || 15 || 3 || 2 |} == See also == * Antiguans and Barbudans * Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda * African diaspora * Afro-Caribbean people [[Category:African diaspora in the Caribbean]] [[Category:Antigua and Barbuda people of African descent]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Antigua and Barbuda]] [[Category:People of African descent]] == References == py0tkb4ffy43dwx9j4u17exxyt4co4v 0 17333 63457 2025-06-16T15:48:58Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 Soma be one community wey dey inside STK. 63457 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Soma''' na one community for Savannah Region inside Ghana. E dey inside Sawla-Tuna-Kalba District. E be farming community. 90% of the people for there be farmers. The things dem dey farm be maize, yam, groundnut plus plenty other crops. Soma get one primary school and junior high school. For health matter, dem get one CHPS compound wey dey serve Soma and the nearby communities like Kong, Jang, and others. Soma be Vagla community. Even though other tribes dey stay with them, the Vagla people be the majority and dem be the landowners. Soma share border with Kong, Jang, and Tuna. daceohklbdz6d1ytac7efv8bwhxc9vi 0 17334 63470 2025-06-16T16:07:57Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295880726|Pan-African Congress on Reparations]]" 63470 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. 2corsbkpohe5ddxzbjdxjqlep4v6gh6 63471 63470 2025-06-16T16:09:44Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63471 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == t0muwttq73lhqkun2wau81b230i20bz 63472 63471 2025-06-16T16:10:36Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Background */ Improve article 63472 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. jnwnuqgfdtb906xjj16s328dvpigm1z 63473 63472 2025-06-16T16:11:01Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63473 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == 8uyhu7gmyfvdqvik143oovb8ioqum8v 63474 63473 2025-06-16T16:11:22Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Key Conferences */ Improve article 63474 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== 1zeb60a5tbzrm4nvxlysrhpn90ktojn 63477 63474 2025-06-16T16:13:01Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* 1993 Abuja Proclamation */ Improve article 63477 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. 9kn5s4wldvvqpuigutlihdgv1v8gjub 63478 63477 2025-06-16T16:13:31Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Key Conferences */ Improve article 63478 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. ==== '''2022–2023 Accra Conferences''' ==== izqlqbkzkey0ip7gliihoz2ndfodymb 63479 63478 2025-06-16T16:15:32Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* 2022–2023 Accra Conferences */ Improve article 63479 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. ==== '''2022–2023 Accra Conferences''' ==== Insyd August 2022 den November 2023, major Pan-African conferences on reparations dey hold insyd Accra, Ghana, plus de participation of de African Union (AU) den representatives from across de continent den diaspora. These conferences reaffirmed de demands for full reparations from responsible nations, institutions, den governments, highlighting de ongoing impact of slavery, colonialism, apartheid, den genocide on Africans den people of African descent. De Accra Declaration called for a unified African position den de establishment of an African Committee of Experts on Reparations. trfbh0vlp407nwvc98i7m6ys18dt030 63480 63479 2025-06-16T16:16:45Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* 2022–2023 Accra Conferences */ Improve article 63480 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. ==== '''2022–2023 Accra Conferences''' ==== Insyd August 2022 den November 2023, major Pan-African conferences on reparations dey hold insyd Accra, Ghana, plus de participation of de African Union (AU) den representatives from across de continent den diaspora. These conferences reaffirmed de demands for full reparations from responsible nations, institutions, den governments, highlighting de ongoing impact of slavery, colonialism, apartheid, den genocide on Africans den people of African descent. De Accra Declaration called for a unified African position den de establishment of an African Committee of Experts on Reparations. ==== '''2025 London and Lomé Conferences''' ==== 4rub7w1dyxh4xt4kgkwzgcirvbb4524 63481 63480 2025-06-16T16:18:11Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* 2025 London and Lomé Conferences */ Improve article 63481 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. ==== '''2022–2023 Accra Conferences''' ==== Insyd August 2022 den November 2023, major Pan-African conferences on reparations dey hold insyd Accra, Ghana, plus de participation of de African Union (AU) den representatives from across de continent den diaspora. These conferences reaffirmed de demands for full reparations from responsible nations, institutions, den governments, highlighting de ongoing impact of slavery, colonialism, apartheid, den genocide on Africans den people of African descent. De Accra Declaration called for a unified African position den de establishment of an African Committee of Experts on Reparations. ==== '''2025 London and Lomé Conferences''' ==== Insyd April 2025, a landmark symposium titled "De London Conference, 125 Years Later: Pan-Africanism den Dialogue on Reparations" dey hold at SOAS University of London, organized by de Republic of Togo den de African Union. Dis event marked a historic return to de city where de seeds of Pan-Africanism be first sown den set de stage for de ninth Pan-African Congress, to be hold insyd Lomé, Togo, insyd December 2025. oox92oe5h3t1iz0b9p4in1j1dzln7il 63482 63481 2025-06-16T16:18:51Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63482 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. ==== '''2022–2023 Accra Conferences''' ==== Insyd August 2022 den November 2023, major Pan-African conferences on reparations dey hold insyd Accra, Ghana, plus de participation of de African Union (AU) den representatives from across de continent den diaspora. These conferences reaffirmed de demands for full reparations from responsible nations, institutions, den governments, highlighting de ongoing impact of slavery, colonialism, apartheid, den genocide on Africans den people of African descent. De Accra Declaration called for a unified African position den de establishment of an African Committee of Experts on Reparations. ==== '''2025 London den Lomé Conferences''' ==== Insyd April 2025, a landmark symposium titled "De London Conference, 125 Years Later: Pan-Africanism den Dialogue on Reparations" dey hold at SOAS University of London, organized by de Republic of Togo den de African Union. Dis event marked a historic return to de city where de seeds of Pan-Africanism be first sown den set de stage for de ninth Pan-African Congress, to be hold insyd Lomé, Togo, insyd December 2025. ==== Demands den Resolutions ==== ncylfthanfnt3kobpkflu3no4f650kg 63483 63482 2025-06-16T16:20:17Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63483 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. ==== '''2022–2023 Accra Conferences''' ==== Insyd August 2022 den November 2023, major Pan-African conferences on reparations dey hold insyd Accra, Ghana, plus de participation of de African Union (AU) den representatives from across de continent den diaspora. These conferences reaffirmed de demands for full reparations from responsible nations, institutions, den governments, highlighting de ongoing impact of slavery, colonialism, apartheid, den genocide on Africans den people of African descent. De Accra Declaration called for a unified African position den de establishment of an African Committee of Experts on Reparations. ==== '''2025 London den Lomé Conferences''' ==== Insyd April 2025, a landmark symposium titled "De London Conference, 125 Years Later: Pan-Africanism den Dialogue on Reparations" dey hold at SOAS University of London, organized by de Republic of Togo den de African Union. Dis event marked a historic return to de city where de seeds of Pan-Africanism be first sown den set de stage for de ninth Pan-African Congress, to be hold insyd Lomé, Togo, insyd December 2025. ==== Demands den Resolutions ==== Pan-African congresses on reparations have consistently called for: * **Financial compensation** for de harms of slavery den colonialism * **Return of stolen artifacts** den cultural property * **Debt cancellation** for African nations * **Greater representation** for Africa insyd global governance * **Educational den technological transfers** to address historical deprivations De movement emphasizes dat reparations be not limited to monetary compensation but sana dey include social, economic, den cultural restitution. 35w06j94iu1onsytkhvht9jaqgxyxox 63484 63483 2025-06-16T16:20:46Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63484 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. ==== '''2022–2023 Accra Conferences''' ==== Insyd August 2022 den November 2023, major Pan-African conferences on reparations dey hold insyd Accra, Ghana, plus de participation of de African Union (AU) den representatives from across de continent den diaspora. These conferences reaffirmed de demands for full reparations from responsible nations, institutions, den governments, highlighting de ongoing impact of slavery, colonialism, apartheid, den genocide on Africans den people of African descent. De Accra Declaration called for a unified African position den de establishment of an African Committee of Experts on Reparations. ==== '''2025 London den Lomé Conferences''' ==== Insyd April 2025, a landmark symposium titled "De London Conference, 125 Years Later: Pan-Africanism den Dialogue on Reparations" dey hold at SOAS University of London, organized by de Republic of Togo den de African Union. Dis event marked a historic return to de city where de seeds of Pan-Africanism be first sown den set de stage for de ninth Pan-African Congress, to be hold insyd Lomé, Togo, insyd December 2025. ==== Demands den Resolutions ==== Pan-African congresses on reparations have consistently called for: * **Financial compensation** for de harms of slavery den colonialism * **Return of stolen artifacts** den cultural property * **Debt cancellation** for African nations * **Greater representation** for Africa insyd global governance * **Educational den technological transfers** to address historical deprivations De movement emphasizes dat reparations be not limited to monetary compensation but sana dey include social, economic, den cultural restitution. == International Context == 49wvnkb0jgi4n4stm724p04ixcxgu0t 63486 63484 2025-06-16T16:22:05Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* International Context */ Improve article 63486 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. ==== '''2022–2023 Accra Conferences''' ==== Insyd August 2022 den November 2023, major Pan-African conferences on reparations dey hold insyd Accra, Ghana, plus de participation of de African Union (AU) den representatives from across de continent den diaspora. These conferences reaffirmed de demands for full reparations from responsible nations, institutions, den governments, highlighting de ongoing impact of slavery, colonialism, apartheid, den genocide on Africans den people of African descent. De Accra Declaration called for a unified African position den de establishment of an African Committee of Experts on Reparations. ==== '''2025 London den Lomé Conferences''' ==== Insyd April 2025, a landmark symposium titled "De London Conference, 125 Years Later: Pan-Africanism den Dialogue on Reparations" dey hold at SOAS University of London, organized by de Republic of Togo den de African Union. Dis event marked a historic return to de city where de seeds of Pan-Africanism be first sown den set de stage for de ninth Pan-African Congress, to be hold insyd Lomé, Togo, insyd December 2025. ==== Demands den Resolutions ==== Pan-African congresses on reparations have consistently called for: * **Financial compensation** for de harms of slavery den colonialism * **Return of stolen artifacts** den cultural property * **Debt cancellation** for African nations * **Greater representation** for Africa insyd global governance * **Educational den technological transfers** to address historical deprivations De movement emphasizes dat reparations be not limited to monetary compensation but sana dey include social, economic, den cultural restitution. == International Context == De Pan-African Congress on Reparations dey play a central role insyd advancing de global reparations movement, collaborating plus de Caribbean Community (CARICOM) den oda international partners to build a united front for justice. De African Union has officially adopted "Justice for Africans den people of African descent through reparations" as de theme for 2025, reflecting de ongoing commitment to dis cause. 1ngz4yc8lyny6gh57rrkojlspj1gar2 63487 63486 2025-06-16T16:22:42Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63487 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. ==== '''2022–2023 Accra Conferences''' ==== Insyd August 2022 den November 2023, major Pan-African conferences on reparations dey hold insyd Accra, Ghana, plus de participation of de African Union (AU) den representatives from across de continent den diaspora. These conferences reaffirmed de demands for full reparations from responsible nations, institutions, den governments, highlighting de ongoing impact of slavery, colonialism, apartheid, den genocide on Africans den people of African descent. De Accra Declaration called for a unified African position den de establishment of an African Committee of Experts on Reparations. ==== '''2025 London den Lomé Conferences''' ==== Insyd April 2025, a landmark symposium titled "De London Conference, 125 Years Later: Pan-Africanism den Dialogue on Reparations" dey hold at SOAS University of London, organized by de Republic of Togo den de African Union. Dis event marked a historic return to de city where de seeds of Pan-Africanism be first sown den set de stage for de ninth Pan-African Congress, to be hold insyd Lomé, Togo, insyd December 2025. ==== Demands den Resolutions ==== Pan-African congresses on reparations have consistently called for: * **Financial compensation** for de harms of slavery den colonialism * **Return of stolen artifacts** den cultural property * **Debt cancellation** for African nations * **Greater representation** for Africa insyd global governance * **Educational den technological transfers** to address historical deprivations De movement emphasizes dat reparations be not limited to monetary compensation but sana dey include social, economic, den cultural restitution. == International Context == De Pan-African Congress on Reparations dey play a central role insyd advancing de global reparations movement, collaborating plus de Caribbean Community (CARICOM) den oda international partners to build a united front for justice. De African Union has officially adopted "Justice for Africans den people of African descent through reparations" as de theme for 2025, reflecting de ongoing commitment to dis cause. == Sanso See == 3ima95otz6xomhs5ys26wp8d9nht2ry 63488 63487 2025-06-16T16:23:06Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Sanso See */ Improve article 63488 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Pan-African Congress on Reparations''' refer to a series of gatherings den conferences organized by African nations, de African Union, den civil society to advance de cause of reparations for de historical injustices of slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. These events have been pivotal insyd shaping de international discourse on reparations den dey call for solidarity among African states den de African diaspora insyd demanding justice den restitution from former colonial powers. == Background == De roots of de Pan-African movement date back to de early 20th century, plus de first major Pan-African gatherings emphasizing de need for justice den equity for Africans den people of African descent worldwide. == Key Conferences == ==== '''1993 Abuja Proclamation''' ==== De first major Pan-African Conference on Reparations take place insyd Abuja, Nigeria, from April 27–29, 1993. Sponsored by de Group of Eminent Persons (GEP) den de Commission for Reparations of de Organization of African Unity (OAU), de conference issue de Abuja Proclamation, a landmark document dat called upon de international community to recognize de unique den unprecedented moral debt owed to African peoples. De proclamation sana demand de return of stolen goods (notably the Benin bronzes), cancellation of debt, den greater representation for Africa insyd international bodies such as de United Nations Security Council. ==== '''2022–2023 Accra Conferences''' ==== Insyd August 2022 den November 2023, major Pan-African conferences on reparations dey hold insyd Accra, Ghana, plus de participation of de African Union (AU) den representatives from across de continent den diaspora. These conferences reaffirmed de demands for full reparations from responsible nations, institutions, den governments, highlighting de ongoing impact of slavery, colonialism, apartheid, den genocide on Africans den people of African descent. De Accra Declaration called for a unified African position den de establishment of an African Committee of Experts on Reparations. ==== '''2025 London den Lomé Conferences''' ==== Insyd April 2025, a landmark symposium titled "De London Conference, 125 Years Later: Pan-Africanism den Dialogue on Reparations" dey hold at SOAS University of London, organized by de Republic of Togo den de African Union. Dis event marked a historic return to de city where de seeds of Pan-Africanism be first sown den set de stage for de ninth Pan-African Congress, to be hold insyd Lomé, Togo, insyd December 2025. ==== Demands den Resolutions ==== Pan-African congresses on reparations have consistently called for: * **Financial compensation** for de harms of slavery den colonialism * **Return of stolen artifacts** den cultural property * **Debt cancellation** for African nations * **Greater representation** for Africa insyd global governance * **Educational den technological transfers** to address historical deprivations De movement emphasizes dat reparations be not limited to monetary compensation but sana dey include social, economic, den cultural restitution. == International Context == De Pan-African Congress on Reparations dey play a central role insyd advancing de global reparations movement, collaborating plus de Caribbean Community (CARICOM) den oda international partners to build a united front for justice. De African Union has officially adopted "Justice for Africans den people of African descent through reparations" as de theme for 2025, reflecting de ongoing commitment to dis cause. == Sanso See == * Pan-Africanism * Reparations for slavery * Caribbean Community * African Union c6f9tc1b05iyqn9lv64r77p8ki3hcgu 0 17335 63475 2025-06-16T16:11:44Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1289637622|Octavius Catto]]" 63475 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Octavius Valentine Catto''' (February 22, 1839 – October 10, 1871) na he be an American educator, intellectual, den civil rights activist. He cam be principal of male students at de Institute for Colored Youth, wer na he sanso be educated. Na dem born am free insyd Charleston, South Carolina, insyd a prominent mixed-race family, na he move north as a boy plus ein family. After he plete ein education, na he go into teaching, wey he cam be active insyd civil rights. Na he sanso cam be known as a top cricket den baseball player insyd 19th-century Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Na he help organize den play give de Philadelphia Pythians baseball team. Na dem shoot den kill am on election-day insyd Philadelphia, wer ethnic Irish of de Democratic Party, wey na dem be anti-Reconstruction wey dem oppose black suffrage, attack black men make dem prevent dema voting. pc3uuvcvrbi60lwlp3zlnts012anl0z 63800 63475 2025-06-17T09:05:13Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Early life" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1289637622|Octavius Catto]]" 63800 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Octavius Valentine Catto''' (February 22, 1839 – October 10, 1871) na he be an American educator, intellectual, den civil rights activist. He cam be principal of male students at de Institute for Colored Youth, wer na he sanso be educated. Na dem born am free insyd Charleston, South Carolina, insyd a prominent mixed-race family, na he move north as a boy plus ein family. After he plete ein education, na he go into teaching, wey he cam be active insyd civil rights. Na he sanso cam be known as a top cricket den baseball player insyd 19th-century Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Na he help organize den play give de Philadelphia Pythians baseball team. Na dem shoot den kill am on election-day insyd Philadelphia, wer ethnic Irish of de Democratic Party, wey na dem be anti-Reconstruction wey dem oppose black suffrage, attack black men make dem prevent dema voting. == Early life == Na dem born Octavius Catto free. Na ein mommie Sarah Isabella Cain be a free member of de city ein prominent mixed-race DeReef family, wich na dem be free for decades wey dem belong to de Brown Fellowship Society, a mark of dema status.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Na ein poppie, William T. Catto, be an enslaved millwright insyd South Carolina wey gain ein freedom. Na dem ordain am as a Presbyterian minister before he take ein family north, first to Baltimore, den then to Philadelphia, wer na dem settle insyd de free state of Pennsylvania. Na de state gradually abolish slavery, dey begin before de end of de Revolutionary War.<ref name="Delany">{{Cite book|last=Delany|first=M. R.|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17154|title=The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States|publisher=Self-published|year=1852}}</ref><ref name="Douglass">{{Cite book|last=Douglass|first=F|title=W. T. Catto, ''North Star''|date=October 20, 1848}}</ref> Na William T. Catto be a founding member of Philadelphia ein Banneker Institute, an African-American intellectual den literary society.<ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref> Na he wrep "A Semi-Centenary Discourse," a history of de First African Presbyterian Church insyd Philadelphia. [[File:20130415-812SOUTHST-CATO.jpg|thumb|812 South Street, Philadelphia (April 2013)]] Na Catto begin ein education at Vaux Primary School den then Lombard Grammar School, institutions specifically for de education of African-Americans, insyd Philadelphia. Insyd 1853, na he enter de, otherwise, all-white Allentown Academy insyd Allentown, New Jersey, wey locate across de Delaware River den 40 miles north. Insyd 1854, wen na ein family return to Philadelphia, he cam be a student at dat city ein Institute for Colored Youth (ICY).<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Managed by de Society of Friends (Quakers), na ICY ein curriculum include de classical study of Latin, Greek, geometry, den trigonometry.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> While a student at ICY, na Catto present papers wey na he take part insyd scholarly discussions at "a young men's instruction society". Led by fellow ICY student [[Jacob C. White Jr.]], na dem meet weekly at de ICY.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref><ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref> Na Catto graduate from ICY insyd 1858, wey na he win praise from principal Ebenezer Bassett for "outstanding scholarly work, great energy, den perseverance insyd school matters." Na Catto do a year of post-graduate study, wey dey include private tutoring insyd both Greek den Latin, insyd Washington, D. C. a5xhyfiygih4hhj969l9j98pzqp6g55 63804 63800 2025-06-17T09:15:56Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Activism and influence" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1289637622|Octavius Catto]]" 63804 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Octavius Valentine Catto''' (February 22, 1839 – October 10, 1871) na he be an American educator, intellectual, den civil rights activist. He cam be principal of male students at de Institute for Colored Youth, wer na he sanso be educated. Na dem born am free insyd Charleston, South Carolina, insyd a prominent mixed-race family, na he move north as a boy plus ein family. After he plete ein education, na he go into teaching, wey he cam be active insyd civil rights. Na he sanso cam be known as a top cricket den baseball player insyd 19th-century Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Na he help organize den play give de Philadelphia Pythians baseball team. Na dem shoot den kill am on election-day insyd Philadelphia, wer ethnic Irish of de Democratic Party, wey na dem be anti-Reconstruction wey dem oppose black suffrage, attack black men make dem prevent dema voting. == Early life == Na dem born Octavius Catto free. Na ein mommie Sarah Isabella Cain be a free member of de city ein prominent mixed-race DeReef family, wich na dem be free for decades wey dem belong to de Brown Fellowship Society, a mark of dema status.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Na ein poppie, William T. Catto, be an enslaved millwright insyd South Carolina wey gain ein freedom. Na dem ordain am as a Presbyterian minister before he take ein family north, first to Baltimore, den then to Philadelphia, wer na dem settle insyd de free state of Pennsylvania. Na de state gradually abolish slavery, dey begin before de end of de Revolutionary War.<ref name="Delany">{{Cite book|last=Delany|first=M. R.|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17154|title=The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States|publisher=Self-published|year=1852}}</ref><ref name="Douglass">{{Cite book|last=Douglass|first=F|title=W. T. Catto, ''North Star''|date=October 20, 1848}}</ref> Na William T. Catto be a founding member of Philadelphia ein Banneker Institute, an African-American intellectual den literary society.<ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref> Na he wrep "A Semi-Centenary Discourse," a history of de First African Presbyterian Church insyd Philadelphia. [[File:20130415-812SOUTHST-CATO.jpg|thumb|812 South Street, Philadelphia (April 2013)]] Na Catto begin ein education at Vaux Primary School den then Lombard Grammar School, institutions specifically for de education of African-Americans, insyd Philadelphia. Insyd 1853, na he enter de, otherwise, all-white Allentown Academy insyd Allentown, New Jersey, wey locate across de Delaware River den 40 miles north. Insyd 1854, wen na ein family return to Philadelphia, he cam be a student at dat city ein Institute for Colored Youth (ICY).<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Managed by de Society of Friends (Quakers), na ICY ein curriculum include de classical study of Latin, Greek, geometry, den trigonometry.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> While a student at ICY, na Catto present papers wey na he take part insyd scholarly discussions at "a young men's instruction society". Led by fellow ICY student [[Jacob C. White Jr.]], na dem meet weekly at de ICY.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref><ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref> Na Catto graduate from ICY insyd 1858, wey na he win praise from principal Ebenezer Bassett for "outstanding scholarly work, great energy, den perseverance insyd school matters." Na Catto do a year of post-graduate study, wey dey include private tutoring insyd both Greek den Latin, insyd Washington, D. C. == Activism den influence == Insyd 1859, na he return to Philadelphia, wer na dem elect am full member den Recording Secretary of de Banneker Institute. Na dem sanso hire am as teacher of English den mathematics at de ICY.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref><ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref><ref name="Griffin">{{Cite book|last=Griffin|first=H. H. (n. d.).|url=http://www.pacscl.org/catto/index_kelly.html|title=The Trial of Frank Kelly, for the Assassination and Murder of Octavius V. Catto, On October 10, 1871|publisher=Daily Tribune Publishing Co.|location=Philadelphia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709053715/http://www.pacscl.org/catto/index_kelly.html|archive-date=July 9, 2007}}</ref> On May 10, 1864, na Catto deliver ICY ein commencement address, wich na he give a historical synopsis of de school.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> In addition, na Catto ein address touch on de issue of de potential lack of sensitivity of white teachers toward de needs den interests of African-American students: <blockquote>''It is at least unjust to allow a blind and ignorant prejudice to so far disregard the choice of parents and the will of the colored tax-payers, as to appoint over colored children white teachers, whose intelligence and success, measured by the fruits of their labors, could neither obtain nor secure for them positions which we know would be more congenial to their tastes.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref>''</blockquote> Na Catto sanso speak of de Civil War, then in progress. Na he believe dat de United States government for evolve chaw times in order to change. Na he understand dat de change for cam no necessarily be for de benefit of African Americans, buh more for America eim political den industrial welfare. Na dis go be a mutual benefit give all Americans. <blockquote>... ''It is for the purpose of promoting, as far as possible, the preparation of the colored man for the assumption of these new relations with intelligence and with the knowledge which promises success, that the Institute feels called upon at this time to act with more energy and on a broader scale than has heretofore been required.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref>''</blockquote> On January 2, 1865, for a gathering at de National Hall insyd Philadelphia make dem celebrate de second anniversary of de [[Emancipation Proclamation]], na Catto "deliver a very able address, wey one wey be a credit to de mind den heart of de speaker."<ref>''Christian Recorder'', January 7, 1865</ref> Insyd 1869, na Bassett lef ICY wen na dem appoint am ambassador to Haiti. Na Catto lobby make he succeed Bassett as principal; however, na de ICY board choose Catto ein fellow teacher, Fanny Jackson Coppin, as head of de school. Na dem elect Catto as de principal of de ICY ein male department.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref><ref>References to him as an influence on one of his students, Hershel V. Cashin, can be found in the book, {{Cite book|last=Cashin|first=Sheryll|title=The Agitator's Daughter: A Memoir of Four Generations of One Extraordinary African-American Family|date=July 31, 2008|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=9780786721726}}</ref> Insyd 1870, na Catto join de Franklin Institute, a center for science den education wey na ein white leaders support Catto ein membership despite ein race, in de face of sam opposition. Na Catto serve as principal den teacher at ICY til ein death insyd 1871. Na ein successor insyd de position be Richard Theodore Greener.<ref name="Simmons1887">{{Cite book|last1=Simmons|first1=William|title=Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising|last2=Turner|first2=Henry McNeal|publisher=GM Rewell & Company|year=1887|pages=327–335}}</ref> ac1uuzuenhmll3j91n709uo52qm40jc 63836 63804 2025-06-17T11:39:14Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Activist for equal rights" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1289637622|Octavius Catto]]" 63836 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Octavius Valentine Catto''' (February 22, 1839 – October 10, 1871) na he be an American educator, intellectual, den civil rights activist. He cam be principal of male students at de Institute for Colored Youth, wer na he sanso be educated. Na dem born am free insyd Charleston, South Carolina, insyd a prominent mixed-race family, na he move north as a boy plus ein family. After he plete ein education, na he go into teaching, wey he cam be active insyd civil rights. Na he sanso cam be known as a top cricket den baseball player insyd 19th-century Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Na he help organize den play give de Philadelphia Pythians baseball team. Na dem shoot den kill am on election-day insyd Philadelphia, wer ethnic Irish of de Democratic Party, wey na dem be anti-Reconstruction wey dem oppose black suffrage, attack black men make dem prevent dema voting. == Early life == Na dem born Octavius Catto free. Na ein mommie Sarah Isabella Cain be a free member of de city ein prominent mixed-race DeReef family, wich na dem be free for decades wey dem belong to de Brown Fellowship Society, a mark of dema status.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Na ein poppie, William T. Catto, be an enslaved millwright insyd South Carolina wey gain ein freedom. Na dem ordain am as a Presbyterian minister before he take ein family north, first to Baltimore, den then to Philadelphia, wer na dem settle insyd de free state of Pennsylvania. Na de state gradually abolish slavery, dey begin before de end of de Revolutionary War.<ref name="Delany">{{Cite book|last=Delany|first=M. R.|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17154|title=The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States|publisher=Self-published|year=1852}}</ref><ref name="Douglass">{{Cite book|last=Douglass|first=F|title=W. T. Catto, ''North Star''|date=October 20, 1848}}</ref> Na William T. Catto be a founding member of Philadelphia ein Banneker Institute, an African-American intellectual den literary society.<ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref> Na he wrep "A Semi-Centenary Discourse," a history of de First African Presbyterian Church insyd Philadelphia. [[File:20130415-812SOUTHST-CATO.jpg|thumb|812 South Street, Philadelphia (April 2013)]] Na Catto begin ein education at Vaux Primary School den then Lombard Grammar School, institutions specifically for de education of African-Americans, insyd Philadelphia. Insyd 1853, na he enter de, otherwise, all-white Allentown Academy insyd Allentown, New Jersey, wey locate across de Delaware River den 40 miles north. Insyd 1854, wen na ein family return to Philadelphia, he cam be a student at dat city ein Institute for Colored Youth (ICY).<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Managed by de Society of Friends (Quakers), na ICY ein curriculum include de classical study of Latin, Greek, geometry, den trigonometry.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> While a student at ICY, na Catto present papers wey na he take part insyd scholarly discussions at "a young men's instruction society". Led by fellow ICY student [[Jacob C. White Jr.]], na dem meet weekly at de ICY.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref><ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref> Na Catto graduate from ICY insyd 1858, wey na he win praise from principal Ebenezer Bassett for "outstanding scholarly work, great energy, den perseverance insyd school matters." Na Catto do a year of post-graduate study, wey dey include private tutoring insyd both Greek den Latin, insyd Washington, D. C. == Activism den influence == Insyd 1859, na he return to Philadelphia, wer na dem elect am full member den Recording Secretary of de Banneker Institute. Na dem sanso hire am as teacher of English den mathematics at de ICY.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref><ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref><ref name="Griffin">{{Cite book|last=Griffin|first=H. H. (n. d.).|url=http://www.pacscl.org/catto/index_kelly.html|title=The Trial of Frank Kelly, for the Assassination and Murder of Octavius V. Catto, On October 10, 1871|publisher=Daily Tribune Publishing Co.|location=Philadelphia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709053715/http://www.pacscl.org/catto/index_kelly.html|archive-date=July 9, 2007}}</ref> On May 10, 1864, na Catto deliver ICY ein commencement address, wich na he give a historical synopsis of de school.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> In addition, na Catto ein address touch on de issue of de potential lack of sensitivity of white teachers toward de needs den interests of African-American students: <blockquote>''It is at least unjust to allow a blind and ignorant prejudice to so far disregard the choice of parents and the will of the colored tax-payers, as to appoint over colored children white teachers, whose intelligence and success, measured by the fruits of their labors, could neither obtain nor secure for them positions which we know would be more congenial to their tastes.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref>''</blockquote> Na Catto sanso speak of de Civil War, then in progress. Na he believe dat de United States government for evolve chaw times in order to change. Na he understand dat de change for cam no necessarily be for de benefit of African Americans, buh more for America eim political den industrial welfare. Na dis go be a mutual benefit give all Americans. <blockquote>... ''It is for the purpose of promoting, as far as possible, the preparation of the colored man for the assumption of these new relations with intelligence and with the knowledge which promises success, that the Institute feels called upon at this time to act with more energy and on a broader scale than has heretofore been required.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref>''</blockquote> On January 2, 1865, for a gathering at de National Hall insyd Philadelphia make dem celebrate de second anniversary of de [[Emancipation Proclamation]], na Catto "deliver a very able address, wey one wey be a credit to de mind den heart of de speaker."<ref>''Christian Recorder'', January 7, 1865</ref> Insyd 1869, na Bassett lef ICY wen na dem appoint am ambassador to Haiti. Na Catto lobby make he succeed Bassett as principal; however, na de ICY board choose Catto ein fellow teacher, Fanny Jackson Coppin, as head of de school. Na dem elect Catto as de principal of de ICY ein male department.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref><ref>References to him as an influence on one of his students, Hershel V. Cashin, can be found in the book, {{Cite book|last=Cashin|first=Sheryll|title=The Agitator's Daughter: A Memoir of Four Generations of One Extraordinary African-American Family|date=July 31, 2008|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=9780786721726}}</ref> Insyd 1870, na Catto join de Franklin Institute, a center for science den education wey na ein white leaders support Catto ein membership despite ein race, in de face of sam opposition. Na Catto serve as principal den teacher at ICY til ein death insyd 1871. Na ein successor insyd de position be Richard Theodore Greener.<ref name="Simmons1887">{{Cite book|last1=Simmons|first1=William|title=Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising|last2=Turner|first2=Henry McNeal|publisher=GM Rewell & Company|year=1887|pages=327–335}}</ref> == Activist for equal rights == Na de Civil War increase Catto ein activism for abolition den equal rights. Na he join plus Frederick Douglass den oda black leaders make dem form a Recruitment Committee to sign up black men to fight for de Union den emancipation. After de Confederate invasion of Pennsylvania insyd 1863, na Catto help raise a company of black volunteers for de state ein defense; dema help, however, na dem refuse am by de staff of Major General Darius N. Couch on de grounds say na dem no authorize de men make dem fight. (Na Couch be later reprimanded by US Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, buh no be til na de aspiring soldiers return to Philadelphia.) Dey act plus Douglass den de Union League, na Catto help raise eleven regiments of United States Colored Troops insyd de Philadelphia area. Na dem sent dese men to de front wey na chaw see action. Na dem commission Catto as a major insyd de army buh na he never see action.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> On Friday, April 21, 1865, at de State House (Independence Hall) insyd Philadelphia, na Catto present de regimental flag to Lieutenant Colonel Trippe, commander of de 24th United States Colored Troops. Na dem report an account of Catto ein presentation speech de day wey dey follow insyd de ''Christian Recorder'': [[File:Men_of_Color_Civil_War_Recruitment_Broadside_1863.png|right|thumb|1863 Broadside dey list Catto as a speaker wey dey call men of color to arms.]] Insyd November 1864, na dem elect Catto make he be de Corresponding Secretary of de Pennsylvania Equal Rights League.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Na he sanso serve as Vice Pee of de State Convention of Colored People na dem hold insyd Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, insyd February 1865. (''Liberator'' March 3, 1865: 35). Na Catto fight for de desegregation of Philadelphia ein trolley car system, along plus ein fiancée Caroline LeCount den abolitionist William Still.<ref>{{Cite news|date=October 3, 2020|title=Caroline LeCount & the Ohio Street School|url=http://inherownright.org/spotlight/biographical-profiles/feature/caroline-lecount-the-ohio-street-school|access-date=September 28, 2022|website=Biographical Profiles - Explore the story of women's activism through documents & images|language=en}}</ref> De May 18, 1865, issue of de ''New York Times'' run a sstorywey dey discuss de civil disobedience tactics wey Catto employ as na he fight give civil rights: Na dem hold a meeting of de Union League of Philadelphia insyd Sansom Street Hall on Thursday, June 21, 1866, make e protest den denounce de forcible ejection of chaw black women wey komot Philadelphia ein street cars. At dis meeting, na Catto present de resolutions wey dey follow: Na Catto ein crusade give equal rights be capped insyd March 1869, wen na Pennsylvania vote make e ratify de 15th Amendment, wich na e prohibit discrimination against citizens insyd registration den voting based on race, color anaa prior condition; effectively, na e provide suffrage to black men. (Na no women then get de vote.) Na dem fully ratify am insyd 1870. tifigwx0fjtsr8pvzcoeb095hjwx76a 63837 63836 2025-06-17T11:47:51Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the section "Sportsman" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1289637622|Octavius Catto]]" 63837 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Octavius Valentine Catto''' (February 22, 1839 – October 10, 1871) na he be an American educator, intellectual, den civil rights activist. He cam be principal of male students at de Institute for Colored Youth, wer na he sanso be educated. Na dem born am free insyd Charleston, South Carolina, insyd a prominent mixed-race family, na he move north as a boy plus ein family. After he plete ein education, na he go into teaching, wey he cam be active insyd civil rights. Na he sanso cam be known as a top cricket den baseball player insyd 19th-century Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Na he help organize den play give de Philadelphia Pythians baseball team. Na dem shoot den kill am on election-day insyd Philadelphia, wer ethnic Irish of de Democratic Party, wey na dem be anti-Reconstruction wey dem oppose black suffrage, attack black men make dem prevent dema voting. == Early life == Na dem born Octavius Catto free. Na ein mommie Sarah Isabella Cain be a free member of de city ein prominent mixed-race DeReef family, wich na dem be free for decades wey dem belong to de Brown Fellowship Society, a mark of dema status.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Na ein poppie, William T. Catto, be an enslaved millwright insyd South Carolina wey gain ein freedom. Na dem ordain am as a Presbyterian minister before he take ein family north, first to Baltimore, den then to Philadelphia, wer na dem settle insyd de free state of Pennsylvania. Na de state gradually abolish slavery, dey begin before de end of de Revolutionary War.<ref name="Delany">{{Cite book|last=Delany|first=M. R.|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17154|title=The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States|publisher=Self-published|year=1852}}</ref><ref name="Douglass">{{Cite book|last=Douglass|first=F|title=W. T. Catto, ''North Star''|date=October 20, 1848}}</ref> Na William T. Catto be a founding member of Philadelphia ein Banneker Institute, an African-American intellectual den literary society.<ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref> Na he wrep "A Semi-Centenary Discourse," a history of de First African Presbyterian Church insyd Philadelphia. [[File:20130415-812SOUTHST-CATO.jpg|thumb|812 South Street, Philadelphia (April 2013)]] Na Catto begin ein education at Vaux Primary School den then Lombard Grammar School, institutions specifically for de education of African-Americans, insyd Philadelphia. Insyd 1853, na he enter de, otherwise, all-white Allentown Academy insyd Allentown, New Jersey, wey locate across de Delaware River den 40 miles north. Insyd 1854, wen na ein family return to Philadelphia, he cam be a student at dat city ein Institute for Colored Youth (ICY).<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Managed by de Society of Friends (Quakers), na ICY ein curriculum include de classical study of Latin, Greek, geometry, den trigonometry.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> While a student at ICY, na Catto present papers wey na he take part insyd scholarly discussions at "a young men's instruction society". Led by fellow ICY student [[Jacob C. White Jr.]], na dem meet weekly at de ICY.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref><ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref> Na Catto graduate from ICY insyd 1858, wey na he win praise from principal Ebenezer Bassett for "outstanding scholarly work, great energy, den perseverance insyd school matters." Na Catto do a year of post-graduate study, wey dey include private tutoring insyd both Greek den Latin, insyd Washington, D. C. == Activism den influence == Insyd 1859, na he return to Philadelphia, wer na dem elect am full member den Recording Secretary of de Banneker Institute. Na dem sanso hire am as teacher of English den mathematics at de ICY.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref><ref name="Lapsansky">{{Cite book|last=Lapsansky|first=E. J.|url=http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=record&handle=psu.pmhb/1172694007|title=Discipline to the Mind|work=Philadelphia's Banneker Institute, 1854–1872|publisher=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|year=1993|volume=117|pages=83–102|issue=1/2}}</ref><ref name="Griffin">{{Cite book|last=Griffin|first=H. H. (n. d.).|url=http://www.pacscl.org/catto/index_kelly.html|title=The Trial of Frank Kelly, for the Assassination and Murder of Octavius V. Catto, On October 10, 1871|publisher=Daily Tribune Publishing Co.|location=Philadelphia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709053715/http://www.pacscl.org/catto/index_kelly.html|archive-date=July 9, 2007}}</ref> On May 10, 1864, na Catto deliver ICY ein commencement address, wich na he give a historical synopsis of de school.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> In addition, na Catto ein address touch on de issue of de potential lack of sensitivity of white teachers toward de needs den interests of African-American students: <blockquote>''It is at least unjust to allow a blind and ignorant prejudice to so far disregard the choice of parents and the will of the colored tax-payers, as to appoint over colored children white teachers, whose intelligence and success, measured by the fruits of their labors, could neither obtain nor secure for them positions which we know would be more congenial to their tastes.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref>''</blockquote> Na Catto sanso speak of de Civil War, then in progress. Na he believe dat de United States government for evolve chaw times in order to change. Na he understand dat de change for cam no necessarily be for de benefit of African Americans, buh more for America eim political den industrial welfare. Na dis go be a mutual benefit give all Americans. <blockquote>... ''It is for the purpose of promoting, as far as possible, the preparation of the colored man for the assumption of these new relations with intelligence and with the knowledge which promises success, that the Institute feels called upon at this time to act with more energy and on a broader scale than has heretofore been required.<ref name="Catto">{{Cite book|last=Catto|first=O. V.|url=http://www.afrolumens.org/rising_free/waskie2.html|title=Our Alma Mater, An Address Delivered at Concert Hall on the Occasion of the Twelfth Annual Commencement of the Institute for Colored Youth|date=May 10, 1864|publisher=C. Sherman, Printers|location=Philadelphia}}</ref>''</blockquote> On January 2, 1865, for a gathering at de National Hall insyd Philadelphia make dem celebrate de second anniversary of de [[Emancipation Proclamation]], na Catto "deliver a very able address, wey one wey be a credit to de mind den heart of de speaker."<ref>''Christian Recorder'', January 7, 1865</ref> Insyd 1869, na Bassett lef ICY wen na dem appoint am ambassador to Haiti. Na Catto lobby make he succeed Bassett as principal; however, na de ICY board choose Catto ein fellow teacher, Fanny Jackson Coppin, as head of de school. Na dem elect Catto as de principal of de ICY ein male department.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref><ref>References to him as an influence on one of his students, Hershel V. Cashin, can be found in the book, {{Cite book|last=Cashin|first=Sheryll|title=The Agitator's Daughter: A Memoir of Four Generations of One Extraordinary African-American Family|date=July 31, 2008|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=9780786721726}}</ref> Insyd 1870, na Catto join de Franklin Institute, a center for science den education wey na ein white leaders support Catto ein membership despite ein race, in de face of sam opposition. Na Catto serve as principal den teacher at ICY til ein death insyd 1871. Na ein successor insyd de position be Richard Theodore Greener.<ref name="Simmons1887">{{Cite book|last1=Simmons|first1=William|title=Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising|last2=Turner|first2=Henry McNeal|publisher=GM Rewell & Company|year=1887|pages=327–335}}</ref> == Activist for equal rights == Na de Civil War increase Catto ein activism for abolition den equal rights. Na he join plus Frederick Douglass den oda black leaders make dem form a Recruitment Committee to sign up black men to fight for de Union den emancipation. After de Confederate invasion of Pennsylvania insyd 1863, na Catto help raise a company of black volunteers for de state ein defense; dema help, however, na dem refuse am by de staff of Major General Darius N. Couch on de grounds say na dem no authorize de men make dem fight. (Na Couch be later reprimanded by US Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, buh no be til na de aspiring soldiers return to Philadelphia.) Dey act plus Douglass den de Union League, na Catto help raise eleven regiments of United States Colored Troops insyd de Philadelphia area. Na dem sent dese men to de front wey na chaw see action. Na dem commission Catto as a major insyd de army buh na he never see action.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> On Friday, April 21, 1865, at de State House (Independence Hall) insyd Philadelphia, na Catto present de regimental flag to Lieutenant Colonel Trippe, commander of de 24th United States Colored Troops. Na dem report an account of Catto ein presentation speech de day wey dey follow insyd de ''Christian Recorder'': [[File:Men_of_Color_Civil_War_Recruitment_Broadside_1863.png|right|thumb|1863 Broadside dey list Catto as a speaker wey dey call men of color to arms.]] Insyd November 1864, na dem elect Catto make he be de Corresponding Secretary of de Pennsylvania Equal Rights League.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Na he sanso serve as Vice Pee of de State Convention of Colored People na dem hold insyd Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, insyd February 1865. (''Liberator'' March 3, 1865: 35). Na Catto fight for de desegregation of Philadelphia ein trolley car system, along plus ein fiancée Caroline LeCount den abolitionist William Still.<ref>{{Cite news|date=October 3, 2020|title=Caroline LeCount & the Ohio Street School|url=http://inherownright.org/spotlight/biographical-profiles/feature/caroline-lecount-the-ohio-street-school|access-date=September 28, 2022|website=Biographical Profiles - Explore the story of women's activism through documents & images|language=en}}</ref> De May 18, 1865, issue of de ''New York Times'' run a sstorywey dey discuss de civil disobedience tactics wey Catto employ as na he fight give civil rights: Na dem hold a meeting of de Union League of Philadelphia insyd Sansom Street Hall on Thursday, June 21, 1866, make e protest den denounce de forcible ejection of chaw black women wey komot Philadelphia ein street cars. At dis meeting, na Catto present de resolutions wey dey follow: Na Catto ein crusade give equal rights be capped insyd March 1869, wen na Pennsylvania vote make e ratify de 15th Amendment, wich na e prohibit discrimination against citizens insyd registration den voting based on race, color anaa prior condition; effectively, na e provide suffrage to black men. (Na no women then get de vote.) Na dem fully ratify am insyd 1870. == Sportsman == Na Catto be active no be just insyd de public arenas of education den equal rights, buh sanso on de sporting field. Like chaw oda young men of Philadelphia, both white den black, na Catto begin dey play cricket while insyd school, as na ebe a British tradition.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Later na he take up de American sport of baseball. Dey follow de Civil War, na he help establish Philadelphia as a major hub of wat cam be Negro league baseball. Along plus Jacob C. White, Jr., na he run de Pythian Base Ball Club of Philadelphia. Na de Pythians get an undefeated season insyd 1867. Dey follow de 1867 season, na Catto, plus support from players from de white Athletic Base Ball Club, apply for de Pythians dema admission into de newly formed Pennsylvania Base Ball Association. As na e cam be clear say dem go lose any vote by de Association, dem withdraw dema application.<ref name="silcox">{{Cite journal |last=Silcox |first=Harry C. |year=1977 |title=Nineteenth Century Philadelphia Black Militant: Octavius V. Catto (1839–1871) |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/23956 |journal=Pennsylvania History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=53–76 |access-date=26 September 2023 |via=PennState University Libraries}}</ref> Insyd 1869, na de Pythians challenge various white baseball teams insyd Philadelphia to games. Na de Olympic Ball Club accept de challenge. Na de first match game between black den white baseball teams take place on September 4, 1869, wey dey end insyd de Pythians dema defeat, 44 to 23. (''New York Times'', September 5, 1869) 0tzxhxlvskjd05f5nhkid4mwlbozte8 0 17336 63476 2025-06-16T16:12:54Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1211601865|Jacob C. White Jr.]]" 63476 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Jacob_C._White_Jr._1902.jpg|thumb|White insyd 1902]] '''Jacob C. White Jr.''' (1837 – November 11, 1902) na he be an American educator, intellectual, den civil rights activist. Na dem born am to a successful den influential businessman, na White receive de finest education den afford to African-Americans of de time wen na he cam be intertwined insyd de dealings of Philadelphia ein most prominent black leaders. De first black man insyd de city to be appointed as a school principal at Roberts Vaux Consolidated School. During ein tenure between 1864 den 1896, na White reform de institute wey he cam be de leading figure insyd de field of urban education insyd Philadelphia. Alongside ein academic endeavors, na White be significant insyd de sports field: na he help establish de Philadelphia Pythians, an early black baseball club. Dey follow de shooting of ein paddie den fellow activist [[Octavius Catto]] insyd 1871, na White cam be de top civil rights activist insyd se city, wey na he remain active insyd de community til ein death insyd 1902. mku4x5nsetq077qmn8ao7wap97fq8qn 0 17337 63489 2025-06-16T16:25:05Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295882440|Reparations Efforts in South America]]" 63489 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. 0t8e8n002hne2clclcg3w1z7dmctd3r 63490 63489 2025-06-16T16:26:32Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63490 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == 9fbe9ulikq7p9jyv43hvtne5eulghnv 63492 63490 2025-06-16T16:27:27Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Background */ Improve article 63492 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. gr9clbtlbtgvtf99aoazodifr58wx9d 63493 63492 2025-06-16T16:27:52Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63493 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == 708oyz8npqtpjsf8n8jk0t2fw3uvat0 63494 63493 2025-06-16T16:28:43Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Domestic Reparations Efforts */ Improve article 63494 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. 0yvfhaaeenu182htcnzba2sp9mym1yw 63495 63494 2025-06-16T16:29:11Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63495 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == 4dmgl9h91keg75jvrk4l7fjz6x1da28 63497 63495 2025-06-16T16:30:45Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* International Advocacy */ Improve article 63497 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == South American countries dey sana participate insyd international discussions on reparations for slavery den colonialism. While they do not lead major campaigns for reparations to Africa, some nations—such as Brazil—have supported African Union (AU) den CARICOM initiatives calling for reparations from former colonial powers. Diplomatic support at de United Nations and oda forums dey include statements insyd favor of restorative justice den solidarity plus African den Caribbean nations. ihsmohjpvkboe7siot5pigsw5zfz8ze 63498 63497 2025-06-16T16:31:07Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63498 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == South American countries dey sana participate insyd international discussions on reparations for slavery den colonialism. While they do not lead major campaigns for reparations to Africa, some nations—such as Brazil—have supported African Union (AU) den CARICOM initiatives calling for reparations from former colonial powers. Diplomatic support at de United Nations and oda forums dey include statements insyd favor of restorative justice den solidarity plus African den Caribbean nations. == Civil Society and Activism == 1mxly72yi01k9qciy0p4j489ta57v33 63499 63498 2025-06-16T16:31:56Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Civil Society and Activism */ Improve article 63499 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == South American countries dey sana participate insyd international discussions on reparations for slavery den colonialism. While they do not lead major campaigns for reparations to Africa, some nations—such as Brazil—have supported African Union (AU) den CARICOM initiatives calling for reparations from former colonial powers. Diplomatic support at de United Nations and oda forums dey include statements insyd favor of restorative justice den solidarity plus African den Caribbean nations. == Civil Society and Activism == Civil society organizations insyd South America, particularly those representing Afro-descendant populations, be active insyd de global reparations movement. These groups advocate for justice, recognition, den reparations, often highlighting shared histories of oppression den calling for international solidarity. qvn53y85zqa7hy77xr2o6vy0cotnhir 63500 63499 2025-06-16T16:32:20Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63500 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == South American countries dey sana participate insyd international discussions on reparations for slavery den colonialism. While they do not lead major campaigns for reparations to Africa, some nations—such as Brazil—have supported African Union (AU) den CARICOM initiatives calling for reparations from former colonial powers. Diplomatic support at de United Nations and oda forums dey include statements insyd favor of restorative justice den solidarity plus African den Caribbean nations. == Civil Society and Activism == Civil society organizations insyd South America, particularly those representing Afro-descendant populations, be active insyd de global reparations movement. These groups advocate for justice, recognition, den reparations, often highlighting shared histories of oppression den calling for international solidarity. == International Context == 2rnbzwnifpok85xq4gutqzg59a3rz4p 63501 63500 2025-06-16T16:33:24Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* International Context */ Improve article 63501 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == South American countries dey sana participate insyd international discussions on reparations for slavery den colonialism. While they do not lead major campaigns for reparations to Africa, some nations—such as Brazil—have supported African Union (AU) den CARICOM initiatives calling for reparations from former colonial powers. Diplomatic support at de United Nations and oda forums dey include statements insyd favor of restorative justice den solidarity plus African den Caribbean nations. == Civil Society and Activism == Civil society organizations insyd South America, particularly those representing Afro-descendant populations, be active insyd de global reparations movement. These groups advocate for justice, recognition, den reparations, often highlighting shared histories of oppression den calling for international solidarity. == International Context == De broader international movement for reparations dey lead by de African Union den CARICOM, plus calls for former colonial powers to compensate for de transatlantic slave trade den colonialism. South American countries contribute to dis discourse by supporting these calls den seeking to address ein own histories of injustice. br3ww7omwwrrgeuv4g6895wqpy9rnd8 63502 63501 2025-06-16T16:33:56Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63502 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == South American countries dey sana participate insyd international discussions on reparations for slavery den colonialism. While they do not lead major campaigns for reparations to Africa, some nations—such as Brazil—have supported African Union (AU) den CARICOM initiatives calling for reparations from former colonial powers. Diplomatic support at de United Nations and oda forums dey include statements insyd favor of restorative justice den solidarity plus African den Caribbean nations. == Civil Society and Activism == Civil society organizations insyd South America, particularly those representing Afro-descendant populations, be active insyd de global reparations movement. These groups advocate for justice, recognition, den reparations, often highlighting shared histories of oppression den calling for international solidarity. == International Context == De broader international movement for reparations dey lead by de African Union den CARICOM, plus calls for former colonial powers to compensate for de transatlantic slave trade den colonialism. South American countries contribute to dis discourse by supporting these calls den seeking to address ein own histories of injustice. Challenges and Criticisms 7n4i3dwoewg0m682nknsh3wbolq6tcl 63503 63502 2025-06-16T16:34:31Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63503 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == South American countries dey sana participate insyd international discussions on reparations for slavery den colonialism. While they do not lead major campaigns for reparations to Africa, some nations—such as Brazil—have supported African Union (AU) den CARICOM initiatives calling for reparations from former colonial powers. Diplomatic support at de United Nations and oda forums dey include statements insyd favor of restorative justice den solidarity plus African den Caribbean nations. == Civil Society and Activism == Civil society organizations insyd South America, particularly those representing Afro-descendant populations, be active insyd de global reparations movement. These groups advocate for justice, recognition, den reparations, often highlighting shared histories of oppression den calling for international solidarity. == International Context == De broader international movement for reparations dey lead by de African Union den CARICOM, plus calls for former colonial powers to compensate for de transatlantic slave trade den colonialism. South American countries contribute to dis discourse by supporting these calls den seeking to address ein own histories of injustice. == Challenges den Criticisms == aonp4ny3oeiet8ik2bvmn1pyp2x2j0a 63504 63503 2025-06-16T16:35:30Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Challenges den Criticisms */ Improve article 63504 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == South American countries dey sana participate insyd international discussions on reparations for slavery den colonialism. While they do not lead major campaigns for reparations to Africa, some nations—such as Brazil—have supported African Union (AU) den CARICOM initiatives calling for reparations from former colonial powers. Diplomatic support at de United Nations and oda forums dey include statements insyd favor of restorative justice den solidarity plus African den Caribbean nations. == Civil Society and Activism == Civil society organizations insyd South America, particularly those representing Afro-descendant populations, be active insyd de global reparations movement. These groups advocate for justice, recognition, den reparations, often highlighting shared histories of oppression den calling for international solidarity. == International Context == De broader international movement for reparations dey lead by de African Union den CARICOM, plus calls for former colonial powers to compensate for de transatlantic slave trade den colonialism. South American countries contribute to dis discourse by supporting these calls den seeking to address ein own histories of injustice. == Challenges den Criticisms == Efforts to secure reparations face challenges such as political resistance, disagreements over de form den amount of compensation, den questions about de distribution of funds. South American countries generally focus on domestic reparations but sana engage insyd international solidarity plus Africa den de Caribbean. syf16hwnh3xs635eiysthwhqu1qsmfp 63505 63504 2025-06-16T16:36:09Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63505 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == South American countries dey sana participate insyd international discussions on reparations for slavery den colonialism. While they do not lead major campaigns for reparations to Africa, some nations—such as Brazil—have supported African Union (AU) den CARICOM initiatives calling for reparations from former colonial powers. Diplomatic support at de United Nations and oda forums dey include statements insyd favor of restorative justice den solidarity plus African den Caribbean nations. == Civil Society and Activism == Civil society organizations insyd South America, particularly those representing Afro-descendant populations, be active insyd de global reparations movement. These groups advocate for justice, recognition, den reparations, often highlighting shared histories of oppression den calling for international solidarity. == International Context == De broader international movement for reparations dey lead by de African Union den CARICOM, plus calls for former colonial powers to compensate for de transatlantic slave trade den colonialism. South American countries contribute to dis discourse by supporting these calls den seeking to address ein own histories of injustice. == Challenges den Criticisms == Efforts to secure reparations face challenges such as political resistance, disagreements over de form den amount of compensation, den questions about de distribution of funds. South American countries generally focus on domestic reparations but sana engage insyd international solidarity plus Africa den de Caribbean. == Sanso See == igk7tsg1rpus270f647q69hvg4o9w5y 63506 63505 2025-06-16T16:36:38Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Sanso See */ Improve article 63506 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Reparations Efforts in South America''' refer to de advocacy den actions taken by South American countries den civil society to address historical injustices, particularly those related to slavery, colonialism, den systemic underdevelopment. While much of de global reparations discourse focuses on demands from African den Caribbean nations, some South American countries have engaged plus these issues, both domestically den internationally. == Background == De transatlantic slave trade den European colonization profoundly affect South America, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as slaves. De legacy of slavery den colonialism continues to impact societies across de region, especially insyd countries plus large Afro-descendant populations such as Brazil, Colombia, den Venezuela. == Domestic Reparations Efforts == Several South American countries have implemented domestic policies aimed at addressing de legacy of slavery den racial injustice. These efforts often focus on affirmative action, land rights, educational opportunities, den cultural recognition for Afro-descendant communities. For example, Brazil has established quotas for Afro-descendants insyd public universities den government jobs. == International Advocacy == South American countries dey sana participate insyd international discussions on reparations for slavery den colonialism. While they do not lead major campaigns for reparations to Africa, some nations—such as Brazil—have supported African Union (AU) den CARICOM initiatives calling for reparations from former colonial powers. Diplomatic support at de United Nations and oda forums dey include statements insyd favor of restorative justice den solidarity plus African den Caribbean nations. == Civil Society and Activism == Civil society organizations insyd South America, particularly those representing Afro-descendant populations, be active insyd de global reparations movement. These groups advocate for justice, recognition, den reparations, often highlighting shared histories of oppression den calling for international solidarity. == International Context == De broader international movement for reparations dey lead by de African Union den CARICOM, plus calls for former colonial powers to compensate for de transatlantic slave trade den colonialism. South American countries contribute to dis discourse by supporting these calls den seeking to address ein own histories of injustice. == Challenges den Criticisms == Efforts to secure reparations face challenges such as political resistance, disagreements over de form den amount of compensation, den questions about de distribution of funds. South American countries generally focus on domestic reparations but sana engage insyd international solidarity plus Africa den de Caribbean. == Sanso See == * Reparations for slavery * Truth and Reconciliation Commission * African Union * CARICOM l49srna4tpyviyg999ub46xis8wb8v3 0 17338 63507 2025-06-16T16:41:35Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295044040|Esther Stanford-Xosei and the Pan-African Reparations Agenda]]" 63507 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. [[Category:Living people]] g6no56351hebsvcywafzo3h0fkhip0j 63508 63507 2025-06-16T16:43:47Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63508 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == [[Category:Living people]] rx6dbd0w4rgswu7vnel17rxah3pwncy 63510 63508 2025-06-16T16:45:54Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Background den education */ Improve article 63510 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. [[Category:Living people]] 20agl9jwxt208ilgfzm7d6rrz3iuzzj 63511 63510 2025-06-16T16:46:48Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Background den education */ Improve article 63511 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. [[Category:Living people]] 498cop1jvvua9d5p0xt4skr0nzs8plf 63512 63511 2025-06-16T16:47:13Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63512 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == [[Category:Living people]] jl3jlbu2jwgw10dmjbvyr9teym6gb34 63513 63512 2025-06-16T16:47:38Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Professional work and advocacy */ Improve article 63513 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] 4z68zivu0mnuwdsqwqxep6rrydrifzo 63515 63513 2025-06-16T16:48:41Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Legal expertise */ Improve article 63515 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. [[Category:Living people]] 7ccp0gbhro8fpobsu76koq98q2oeo04 63516 63515 2025-06-16T16:49:15Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63516 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === [[Category:Living people]] gecmj6nnvonp1o8rphfb4esfdyhs4ek 63517 63516 2025-06-16T16:50:42Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Formation of PARCOE */ Improve article 63517 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. [[Category:Living people]] 4ft3zri0ppxzvn3u8fg84unrv5801oc 63518 63517 2025-06-16T16:51:08Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63518 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] 58v5bv3zl2n1pbt5x3c3v0y1odyy8y3 63519 63518 2025-06-16T16:52:11Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* The Maangamizi Campaign */ Improve article 63519 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. [[Category:Living people]] fv2wohu209uwcp57ki3wmf3ypm7aa6s 63520 63519 2025-06-16T16:52:32Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* The Maangamizi Campaign */ Improve article 63520 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] 2xd5bjwomt98n6qixmgi0jt3sinhsyu 63521 63520 2025-06-16T16:53:39Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Educational leadership */ Improve article 63521 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. [[Category:Living people]] rfw6a3afk79mimnmuzc0qth6qkc94nx 63522 63521 2025-06-16T16:54:12Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63522 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] brr1a131cqwcor5h6qfghry4mzrqz4x 63523 63522 2025-06-16T16:55:22Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Parliamentary engagement */ Improve article 63523 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. [[Category:Living people]] q6mqz9hleplhe6v7a64vqwaklz63x6m 63524 63523 2025-06-16T16:55:47Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63524 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == [[Category:Living people]] cv6d04gaqbqf9y8mgi6m18pyhmk3lpq 63525 63524 2025-06-16T16:56:09Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Theoretical framework and reparations methodology */ Improve article 63525 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] oz9frzkcv46dzq6qcbixeckjasvcmm2 63526 63525 2025-06-16T16:56:46Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Comprehensive reparations model */ Improve article 63526 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: [[Category:Living people]] j0vrxbc01xdh571z27q1d0trnqgh1zr 63527 63526 2025-06-16T16:57:53Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Comprehensive reparations model */ Improve article 63527 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management [[Category:Living people]] cm8yvxrvvqz9jn87z2gfpd6phj34jbp 63528 63527 2025-06-16T16:58:16Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63528 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] tgsxzfkjuoek0wowy8isxnzw8suyptw 63529 63528 2025-06-16T16:59:13Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Nkrumahist foundations */ Improve article 63529 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. [[Category:Living people]] r4cv1qkokwps7nkf7knynu0fs3ei1cc 63530 63529 2025-06-16T16:59:39Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63530 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] ayethhssfc1t4skmj3wj8vfl0srvb5j 63531 63530 2025-06-16T17:00:49Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Environmental integration */ Improve article 63531 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. [[Category:Living people]] 4l0amxejimwfm52gz0649uilql3tfej 63533 63531 2025-06-16T17:01:13Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63533 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == [[Category:Living people]] 8wokdaz039yo2upd3k28d8wk08nghn1 63534 63533 2025-06-16T17:01:34Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Global influence and achievements */ Improve article 63534 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] jv0dk8tn6qip50h9n4yywbhvaei6bm9 63535 63534 2025-06-16T17:02:53Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Scholarly engagement */ Improve article 63535 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). [[Category:Living people]] ozovgc27jjodyciveseh2pww65xwaxu 63536 63535 2025-06-16T17:03:31Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63536 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] j3gn8y8v1xeh3fjoe2w4ri0078e6vgg 63537 63536 2025-06-16T17:04:41Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Municipal policy impact */ Improve article 63537 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. [[Category:Living people]] 85rb3mpw18cogirepwmffjqcpvq87h4 63538 63537 2025-06-16T17:05:10Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63538 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] 032ssauc9g99at89sr22h9b1gmb0hdj 63540 63538 2025-06-16T17:11:40Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Organizational affiliations */ Improve article 63540 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: [[Category:Living people]] tqltcfsz56yqcv0gox09t5g69a4oku6 63541 63540 2025-06-16T17:12:18Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Organizational affiliations */ Improve article 63541 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee [[Category:Living people]] is4aq3d42fh1rg2qowavhth5eptjy38 63542 63541 2025-06-16T17:12:43Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63542 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == [[Category:Living people]] f9odxz6rhogx07u0var0dqzkrfgttkh 63543 63542 2025-06-16T17:13:05Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* The Pan-African Reparations Movement */ Improve article 63543 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] 6ntdfl2hm1fgaw8icnqn9o5g57n1new 63544 63543 2025-06-16T17:14:13Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Historical foundations */ Improve article 63544 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. [[Category:Living people]] 8disbo9vtlukvt941ofib2y8iiw5i4j 63545 63544 2025-06-16T17:14:36Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Historical foundations */ Improve article 63545 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] a4xrrxvc3rm8xmk2e6s10imjdubkh9r 63546 63545 2025-06-16T17:15:06Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Modern manifestations */ Improve article 63546 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: [[Category:Living people]] nawnswaeyefmgra1jden616yaxu6tuv 63547 63546 2025-06-16T17:16:01Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Modern manifestations */ Improve article 63547 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform [[Category:Living people]] 2xp2z6bw0unl6iks6vkrv2vjz70lqbi 63548 63547 2025-06-16T17:16:31Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63548 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform ==== '''Principal organizations''' ==== [[Category:Living people]] f0jvc2fhpt6m0lgmmhmj8al45vvi5n7 63549 63548 2025-06-16T17:17:06Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Principal organizations */ Improve article 63549 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform ==== '''Principal organizations''' ==== Leading institutions insyd de Pan-African reparations movement include: [[Category:Living people]] ipvp1nd2wspjh13xvgvtg50e0jmm101 63550 63549 2025-06-16T17:17:44Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Principal organizations */ Improve article 63550 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform ==== '''Principal organizations''' ==== Leading institutions insyd de Pan-African reparations movement include: * Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Reparations Commission * African Union reparations initiatives * Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) * Diverse national reparations commissions den civil society groups [[Category:Living people]] 1gig1f9w3iop59hkyvv6z24uokctf3c 63551 63550 2025-06-16T17:18:23Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63551 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform ==== '''Principal organizations''' ==== Leading institutions insyd de Pan-African reparations movement include: * Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Reparations Commission * African Union reparations initiatives * Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) * Diverse national reparations commissions den civil society groups Recognition den honors [[Category:Living people]] nue9coywr4dje62zocl9kra4vvzko8q 63552 63551 2025-06-16T17:18:50Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63552 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform ==== '''Principal organizations''' ==== Leading institutions insyd de Pan-African reparations movement include: * Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Reparations Commission * African Union reparations initiatives * Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) * Diverse national reparations commissions den civil society groups == Recognition den honors == [[Category:Living people]] 9z99atmmgftr7b3kkt1av77rnpf45l3 63554 63552 2025-06-16T17:19:49Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Recognition den honors */ Improve article 63554 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform ==== '''Principal organizations''' ==== Leading institutions insyd de Pan-African reparations movement include: * Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Reparations Commission * African Union reparations initiatives * Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) * Diverse national reparations commissions den civil society groups == Recognition den honors == Stanford-Xosei dey gain acknowledgment as a prominent figure insyd international reparations advocacy den dey participate insyd global conferences den scholarly forums addressing reparations den Pan-African studies. [[Category:Living people]] 0r98vdysb7oxlxzb94lncyp6xi31kmq 63555 63554 2025-06-16T17:20:25Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63555 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform ==== '''Principal organizations''' ==== Leading institutions insyd de Pan-African reparations movement include: * Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Reparations Commission * African Union reparations initiatives * Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) * Diverse national reparations commissions den civil society groups == Recognition den honors == Stanford-Xosei dey gain acknowledgment as a prominent figure insyd international reparations advocacy den dey participate insyd global conferences den scholarly forums addressing reparations den Pan-African studies. == Scholarly output and media presence == [[Category:Living people]] 7hw3z9p6yu1xim2aim61hzn00zq16k4 63556 63555 2025-06-16T17:21:32Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Scholarly output and media presence */ Improve article 63556 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform ==== '''Principal organizations''' ==== Leading institutions insyd de Pan-African reparations movement include: * Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Reparations Commission * African Union reparations initiatives * Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) * Diverse national reparations commissions den civil society groups == Recognition den honors == Stanford-Xosei dey gain acknowledgment as a prominent figure insyd international reparations advocacy den dey participate insyd global conferences den scholarly forums addressing reparations den Pan-African studies. == Scholarly output and media presence == Stanford-Xosei dey author contributions to numerous academic publications den dey participate insyd extensive interviews regarding reparations advocacy. Ein scholarship dey appear insyd periodicals specializing insyd African political economy den decolonial research. [[Category:Living people]] lgvcrg4pmwqql89jgg29b97fpq9mocx 63557 63556 2025-06-16T17:22:08Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63557 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform ==== '''Principal organizations''' ==== Leading institutions insyd de Pan-African reparations movement include: * Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Reparations Commission * African Union reparations initiatives * Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) * Diverse national reparations commissions den civil society groups == Recognition den honors == Stanford-Xosei dey gain acknowledgment as a prominent figure insyd international reparations advocacy den dey participate insyd global conferences den scholarly forums addressing reparations den Pan-African studies. == Scholarly output and media presence == Stanford-Xosei dey author contributions to numerous academic publications den dey participate insyd extensive interviews regarding reparations advocacy. Ein scholarship dey appear insyd periodicals specializing insyd African political economy den decolonial research. == Sanso See == [[Category:Living people]] ibj4vhd16jd3hmdrq5cz6wumtx4su1x 63558 63557 2025-06-16T17:22:32Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Sanso See */ Improve article 63558 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Esther Stanford-Xosei''' (born circa 1974) be a British legal expert den Pan-Africanist advocate who dey emerge as a prominent voice insyd de global reparations movement for African-descended peoples. Ein most significant contributions include helping to establish de Pan-African Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) insyd 2001 den facilitating de creation of de All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations insyd de UK Parliament insyd 2021. == Background den education == Born insyd South London to Caribbean immigrant parents from Barbados den Guyana, Stanford-Xosei ein political consciousness dey shape during ein youth by de Anti-Apartheid Movement. At thirteen years old insyd 1987, she demonstrated early literary den political talent by winning a writing competition for young Black authors plus an essay entitled "Not only equality but justice," which addressed de dismantling of apartheid. Ein academic journey lead ein to de University of Kent for legal studies, where she encountered critical legal studies methodology. Stanford-Xosei be presently pursuing doctoral research at de University of Chichester, focusing on de British component of de International Social Movement for Afrikan Reparations. == Professional work and advocacy == ==== '''Legal expertise''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey identify professionally as a jurisconsult, specializing insyd de practical application of jurisprudence. She dey characterize ein unique professional role as dat of a "Pan-Afrikan internationalist 'guerrilla lawyer'" who operates as a community-based scholar-activist insyd de legal field. === '''Formation of PARCOE''' === De year 2001 dey mark Stanford-Xosei ein collaboration plus Ghanaian Pan-Afrikanists Kofi Mawuli Klu den Kwame Adofo Sampong insyd establishing de Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE). Dis organization dey create to address what Stanford-Xosei perceive as an absence of dedicated advocacy for Pan-African reparations insyd European political discourse. ==== '''The Maangamizi Campaign''' ==== Stanford-Xosei established den directs de '''Stop the Maangamizi: We Charge Genocide/Ecocide Campaign'''. "Maangamizi," derived from Kiswahili den Pan-Afrikan terminology, dey describe de systematic attempt to eliminate African peoples den all aspects of African identity, expressed through de ongoing sequence of chattel slavery, colonialism, den neocolonial exploitation. ==== '''Educational leadership''' ==== As Executive Director of de Maangamizi Educational Trust, Stanford-Xosei dey oversee de educational component of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. De Trust ein mission dey center on promoting awareness of reparations issues den African cultural heritage. ==== '''Parliamentary engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei be instrumental insyd creating de All-Party Parliamentary Group for Afrikan Reparations (APPGAR) insyd de UK Parliament during October 2021. Dis development dey represent de inaugural formal platform insyd British governmental institutions dedicated to comprehensive African reparations discourse. == Theoretical framework and reparations methodology == ==== '''Comprehensive reparations model''' ==== Stanford-Xosei promotes an expansive reparations paradigm dat extends beyond monetary restitution. Ein theoretical framework encompasses: * '''Rematriation''': Restoration of historical, cultural, den spiritual elements to address de dispossession experienced by enslaved African populations * '''Cognitive justice''': Revival of indigenous African intellectual traditions encompassing language, spirituality, philosophy, artistic expression, den technological knowledge * '''Land-based reparations''': Provision of territorial access den restoration of both material den immaterial heritage rights * '''Ecological restoration''': Remediation of environmental harm den advancement of sustainable resource management ==== '''Nkrumahist foundations''' ==== De theoretical underpinnings of Stanford-Xosei ein activism draw extensively from Kwame Nkrumah ein Pan-Africanist ideology den ein later revolutionary writings following 1966. Ein advocacy centers on achieving "restoration of Afrikan sovereignty" den constructing Africa as a "Pan-Afrikan Union of Communities" under collective governance by continental den diasporic African populations. ==== '''Environmental integration''' ==== Stanford-Xosei has formulated de "Planet Repairs" framework, which dey connect African reparations plus broader environmental den climate justice initiatives. Dis conceptual approach dey gain traction insyd environmental activism, notably influencing Extinction Rebellion through de advocacy efforts of de Stop de Maangamizi Campaign. == Global influence and achievements == ==== '''Scholarly engagement''' ==== Stanford-Xosei dey establish einself as a cross-disciplinary scholar-activist bridging legal den historical studies. Ein academic involvement dey include participation insyd scholarly conferences den research publications dey focus on reparations, particularly through collaboration plus de International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR). ==== '''Municipal policy impact''' ==== Stanford-Xosei ein advocacy efforts dey result insyd de adoption of reparations resolutions by multiple UK local authorities, dey include Islington, Lambeth, den Bristol City Council. These municipal declarations endorse de campaign ein call for de UK Parliament to create an All-Party Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for Truth den Reparatory Justice. ==== '''Organizational affiliations''' ==== Stanford-Xosei maintains active participation insyd multiple international organizations: * International Network of Scholars den Activists for Afrikan Reparations (INOSAAR) * Global Afrikan Peoples Parliament * Extinction Rebellion Internationalist Solidarity Network * Afrikan Emancipation Day Reparations March Committee == The Pan-African Reparations Movement == ==== '''Historical foundations''' ==== De Pan-African reparations movement traces ein origins to 18th-century advocates such as Ottobah Cugoano den de Sons of Africa organization insyd London. Contemporary efforts build upon de foundation established by de Pan-African Congresses, notably de 1945 Manchester gathering, den de contributions of 20th-century Pan-Africanist thought leaders. ==== '''Modern manifestations''' ==== De current Pan-African reparations agenda incorporates: * Acknowledgment of de Durban Declaration and Programme of Action from de 2001 World Conference Against Racism * Collaborative efforts between continental African institutions den diaspora organizations * Incorporation of environmental den climate justice principles * Promotion of truth den reconciliation mechanisms * Calls for systemic den institutional reform ==== '''Principal organizations''' ==== Leading institutions insyd de Pan-African reparations movement include: * Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Reparations Commission * African Union reparations initiatives * Pan-Afrikan Reparations Coalition insyd Europe (PARCOE) * Diverse national reparations commissions den civil society groups == Recognition den honors == Stanford-Xosei dey gain acknowledgment as a prominent figure insyd international reparations advocacy den dey participate insyd global conferences den scholarly forums addressing reparations den Pan-African studies. == Scholarly output and media presence == Stanford-Xosei dey author contributions to numerous academic publications den dey participate insyd extensive interviews regarding reparations advocacy. Ein scholarship dey appear insyd periodicals specializing insyd African political economy den decolonial research. == Sanso See == * Pan-Africanism * Reparations for slavery * African diaspora * Decolonization * Environmental justice [[Category:Living people]] gnghc8naaznfzbtg1ozfn6fsdjbss0j 0 17339 63539 2025-06-16T17:08:36Z Tiisu Sharif 1372 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293687702|Afro-Bahamians]]" 63539 wikitext text/x-wiki == References and footnotes == iq16bod5ll7p9gn2bbaxugmvjhqqavk 0 17340 63565 2025-06-16T17:52:09Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295475556|Forced repatriation in Africa]]" 63565 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Forced repatriation insyd Africa''' refers to the involuntary return of refugees, asylum seekers, or displaced persons to demma countries of origin, often against will or under coercive conditions. Forced repatriation, or de involuntary return of refugees den migrants to demma home countries, be a contentious issue insyd Africa, sparking heated policy debates among governments, international organizations, den human rights groups. 3chox2wzb5zz512a18i6zlaa3y9jqnq 63566 63565 2025-06-16T17:52:26Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295475556|Forced repatriation in Africa]]" 63566 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Forced repatriation insyd Africa''' refers to the involuntary return of refugees, asylum seekers, or displaced persons to demma countries of origin, often against will or under coercive conditions. Forced repatriation, or de involuntary return of refugees den migrants to demma home countries, be a contentious issue insyd Africa, sparking heated policy debates among governments, international organizations, den human rights groups. == References == pm4pqwh19o0tu81a7o1zjeznxy7twj0 14 17341 63570 2025-06-16T17:57:32Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63570 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17342 63571 2025-06-16T17:57:42Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63571 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 17343 63585 2025-06-16T19:38:14Z Deishini Mariam 1761 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293801345|Félix Houphouët-Boigny]]" 63585 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Félix Houphouët-Boigny''' (   ; 18 October 1905&nbsp;– 7 December 1993), affectionately called '''Papa Houphouët''' or '''Le Vieux''' ("De Old One"), talk say he be an Ivorian politician ein physician who don’t dey served as de first president of [[Ivory Coast]] from 1960 until his death in 1993. A tribal chief, he take work as a medical aide, union leader, demma planter before being elected to deFrench Parliament in 1945. He don’t dey served in several ministerial positions within de Government of France before leading Ivory Coast following independence in 1960. Throughout demma life, he don’t dey play a significant role insyde politics and dedecolonisation of Africa. hjqk15o80oytnwi5tkoe9ot452vxfyp 63610 63585 2025-06-16T20:14:29Z Deishini Mariam 1761 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293801345|Félix Houphouët-Boigny]]" 63610 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Félix Houphouët-Boigny''' (   ; 18 October 1905&nbsp;– 7 December 1993), affectionately called '''Papa Houphouët''' or '''Le Vieux''' ("De Old One"), talk say he be an Ivorian politician ein physician who don’t dey served as de first president of [[Ivory Coast]] from 1960 until his death in 1993. A tribal chief, he take work as a medical aide, union leader, demma planter before being elected to deFrench Parliament in 1945. He don’t dey served in several ministerial positions within de Government of France before leading Ivory Coast following independence in 1960. Throughout demma life, he don’t dey play a significant role insyde politics and dedecolonisation of Africa. Under Houphouët-Boigny's politically moderate leadership, Ivory Coast don’t prosper economically. This success, uncommon insyde poverty-ridden West Africa, became known as de "Ivorian miracle"; it was due to a combination of sound planning, de maintenance of strong ties with de West (particularly France) ein development of de country's significant coffee ein cocoa industries. However, reliance on de agricultural sector don’t dey cause difficulties in 1980, after a sharp drop inyde prices of coffee ein cocoa. Throughout ein presidency, Houphouët-Boigny don’t take maintain a close relationship with France, a policy known as Françafrique, and he built a close friendship with Jacques Foccart, de chief adviser on African policy insyde administrations of Charles de Gaulle plusGeorges Pompidou. He aided de conspirators who ousted [[Kwame Nkrumah]] from power in [[Ghana]] insyde 1966, took part in de failed coup against Mathieu Kérékou insyde Benin in 1977, dem no dey suspect of involvement in de1987 coup d'état that removed [[Thomas Sankara]] from power insyde [[Burkina Faso]] ein provided assistance to UNITA, a United States-supported, anti-communist rebel movement led by Jonas Savimbi insydeAngola. Houphouët-Boigny don’t take maintain a strong anti-communist foreign policy, which don’t dey result in, among other things, severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1969 (after first establishing relations in 1967) and refusing to recognise de [[China|People's Republic of China]] until 1983. He re-established relations with de Soviet Union in 1986. aks0tp9xsr4ehbvq747lck4t0e25o29 63616 63610 2025-06-16T21:02:28Z Deishini Mariam 1761 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293801345|Félix Houphouët-Boigny]]" 63616 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Félix Houphouët-Boigny''' (   ; 18 October 1905&nbsp;– 7 December 1993), affectionately called '''Papa Houphouët''' or '''Le Vieux''' ("De Old One"), talk say he be an Ivorian politician ein physician who don’t dey served as de first president of [[Ivory Coast]] from 1960 until his death in 1993. A tribal chief, he take work as a medical aide, union leader, demma planter before being elected to deFrench Parliament in 1945. He don’t dey served in several ministerial positions within de Government of France before leading Ivory Coast following independence in 1960. Throughout demma life, he don’t dey play a significant role insyde politics and dedecolonisation of Africa. Under Houphouët-Boigny's politically moderate leadership, Ivory Coast don’t prosper economically. This success, uncommon insyde poverty-ridden West Africa, became known as de "Ivorian miracle"; it was due to a combination of sound planning, de maintenance of strong ties with de West (particularly France) ein development of de country's significant coffee ein cocoa industries. However, reliance on de agricultural sector don’t dey cause difficulties in 1980, after a sharp drop inyde prices of coffee ein cocoa. Throughout ein presidency, Houphouët-Boigny don’t take maintain a close relationship with France, a policy known as Françafrique, and he built a close friendship with Jacques Foccart, de chief adviser on African policy insyde administrations of Charles de Gaulle plusGeorges Pompidou. He aided de conspirators who ousted [[Kwame Nkrumah]] from power in [[Ghana]] insyde 1966, took part in de failed coup against Mathieu Kérékou insyde Benin in 1977, dem no dey suspect of involvement in de1987 coup d'état that removed [[Thomas Sankara]] from power insyde [[Burkina Faso]] ein provided assistance to UNITA, a United States-supported, anti-communist rebel movement led by Jonas Savimbi insydeAngola. Houphouët-Boigny don’t take maintain a strong anti-communist foreign policy, which don’t dey result in, among other things, severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1969 (after first establishing relations in 1967) and refusing to recognise de [[China|People's Republic of China]] until 1983. He re-established relations with de Soviet Union in 1986. In de West, Houphouët-Boigny was commonly known as de "Sage of Africa" or de "Grand Old Man of Africa". Houphouët-Boigny take move de country's capital from Abidjan to ein hometown of Yamoussoukro and built de world's largest church there, deBasilica of Our Lady of Peace, at a cost of US$300&nbsp;million. At de time of ein death, he was de longest-serving leader in Africa's history and devthird longest-serving leader in de world after Fidel Castro of Cuba and Kim Il Sung of North Korea. In 1989, [[UNESCO]] created de Félix Houphouët-Boigny Peace Prize for de "safeguarding, maintaining ein seeking of peace". After ein death, conditions in Ivory Coast quickly make deteriorate. Between 1994 and 2002, there were a number of coups, a devaluation of the [[West African CFA franc|CFA franc]] and an economic recession; a civil war began in 2002. 0aqv4x79y71l8un3nij1dbl8f55kr9o 63619 63616 2025-06-16T21:16:30Z Deishini Mariam 1761 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293801345|Félix Houphouët-Boigny]]" 63619 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Félix Houphouët-Boigny''' (   ; 18 October 1905&nbsp;– 7 December 1993), affectionately called '''Papa Houphouët''' or '''Le Vieux''' ("De Old One"), talk say he be an Ivorian politician ein physician who don’t dey served as de first president of [[Ivory Coast]] from 1960 until his death in 1993. A tribal chief, he take work as a medical aide, union leader, demma planter before being elected to deFrench Parliament in 1945. He don’t dey served in several ministerial positions within de Government of France before leading Ivory Coast following independence in 1960. Throughout demma life, he don’t dey play a significant role insyde politics and dedecolonisation of Africa. Under Houphouët-Boigny's politically moderate leadership, Ivory Coast don’t prosper economically. This success, uncommon insyde poverty-ridden West Africa, became known as de "Ivorian miracle"; it was due to a combination of sound planning, de maintenance of strong ties with de West (particularly France) ein development of de country's significant coffee ein cocoa industries. However, reliance on de agricultural sector don’t dey cause difficulties in 1980, after a sharp drop inyde prices of coffee ein cocoa. Throughout ein presidency, Houphouët-Boigny don’t take maintain a close relationship with France, a policy known as Françafrique, and he built a close friendship with Jacques Foccart, de chief adviser on African policy insyde administrations of Charles de Gaulle plusGeorges Pompidou. He aided de conspirators who ousted [[Kwame Nkrumah]] from power in [[Ghana]] insyde 1966, took part in de failed coup against Mathieu Kérékou insyde Benin in 1977, dem no dey suspect of involvement in de1987 coup d'état that removed [[Thomas Sankara]] from power insyde [[Burkina Faso]] ein provided assistance to UNITA, a United States-supported, anti-communist rebel movement led by Jonas Savimbi insydeAngola. Houphouët-Boigny don’t take maintain a strong anti-communist foreign policy, which don’t dey result in, among other things, severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1969 (after first establishing relations in 1967) and refusing to recognise de [[China|People's Republic of China]] until 1983. He re-established relations with de Soviet Union in 1986. In de West, Houphouët-Boigny was commonly known as de "Sage of Africa" or de "Grand Old Man of Africa". Houphouët-Boigny take move de country's capital from Abidjan to ein hometown of Yamoussoukro and built de world's largest church there, deBasilica of Our Lady of Peace, at a cost of US$300&nbsp;million. At de time of ein death, he was de longest-serving leader in Africa's history and devthird longest-serving leader in de world after Fidel Castro of Cuba and Kim Il Sung of North Korea. In 1989, [[UNESCO]] created de Félix Houphouët-Boigny Peace Prize for de "safeguarding, maintaining ein seeking of peace". After ein death, conditions in Ivory Coast quickly make deteriorate. Between 1994 and 2002, there were a number of coups, a devaluation of the [[West African CFA franc|CFA franc]] and an economic recession; a civil war began in 2002. == Early life == === Birth, childhood and education === According to ein official biography, them take bon Houphouët-Boigny probably on 18 October 1905, in Yamoussoukro to a family of hereditary chiefs of de Baoulé people.<ref name="assemblee">{{Cite web|title=Biographies des députés de la IV République: Félix Houphouët-Boigny|url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/biographies/IVRepublique/houphouet-boigny-felix-18101905.asp|access-date=17 July 2008|publisher=[[National Assembly of France]]|language=fr}}</ref> Unofficial accounts, however,they sanna place ein birth date up to seven years earlier. Bon into de animist Akouès tribe, he was named Dia Houphouët: ein first name ''Dia'' means "prophet" or "magician". Ein father was N'Doli Houphouët. Dia Houphouët was de great-nephew through ein mother of Queen Yamousso and de village chief, Kouassi N'Go. When N'Go was murdered in 1910, they take name Dia to succeed him as chief. Due to ein young age, ein steppapa Gbro Diby ruled as regent until Dia came of age; Dia's father don’t die. Houphouët-Boigny descended from tribal chiefs through ein mama , Kimou N'Dri (also known as N'Dri Kan). She take die wanna later insyde 1936. Doubts don’t Dey remain as to de identity of ein father, N'Doli. Officially a native of de N'Zipri of Didiévi tribe,<ref name="histoire">{{Cite web|title=Histoire de la famille Boigny|url=http://www.rezoivoire.net/cotedivoire/patrimoine/111/histoire-de-la-famille-boigny.html|access-date=4 August 2008|publisher=Réseau Ivoire}}</ref> N'Doli Houphouët don’t die shortly after de birth of ein pipkin Augustin,<ref name="combat" /> although no reliable information regarding wanna death exists. Houphouët-Boigny had two elder sisters, Faitai (1898?–1998) and Adjoua (d. 1987), as well as a younger broda Augustin (d. 1939).<ref name="histoire" /> l30odsrpl84q67xh1q6xfy7ufpkm5uw 0 17344 63587 2025-06-16T19:41:40Z Dalvin23 2955 Created page with "Anting na one kind way wey bird dem take dey clean dem body. Dem go carry insect, mostly ant, rub for dem feather and skin. Bird fit hold one ant for mouth, rub am for body, or e fit go lie down where insect plenty, roll for ground like as e dey bath sand" 63587 wikitext text/x-wiki Anting na one kind way wey bird dem take dey clean dem body. Dem go carry insect, mostly ant, rub for dem feather and skin. Bird fit hold one ant for mouth, rub am for body, or e fit go lie down where insect plenty, roll for ground like as e dey bath sand eekhvq7vhxdmyqgcljr46jb3rcjxv0j 63588 63587 2025-06-16T19:42:15Z Dalvin23 2955 63588 wikitext text/x-wiki Anting na one kind way wey bird dem take dey clean dem body. Dem go carry insect, mostly ant, rub for dem feather and skin. Bird fit hold one ant for mouth, rub am for body, or e fit go lie down where insect plenty, roll for ground like as e dey bath sand. Ant dey release chemical like formic acid wey dey help dem fight bacteria and parasite. ju6yswk4fy3k4k86lp8ej64y9xnwrpj 63589 63588 2025-06-16T19:44:00Z Dalvin23 2955 63589 wikitext text/x-wiki Anting na one kind way wey bird dem take dey clean dem body. Dem go carry insect, mostly ant, rub for dem feather and skin. Bird fit hold one ant for mouth, rub am for body, or e fit go lie down where insect plenty, roll for ground like as e dey bath sand. Ant dey release chemical like formic acid wey dey help dem fight bacteria and parasite.<ref>[https://bugpursuits.com/how-do-ants-use-formic-acid/]</ref> == References == 0ix99zcwsjx5u7i6e80zt5czxcs80jc 63590 63589 2025-06-16T19:46:49Z Dalvin23 2955 /* References */ 63590 wikitext text/x-wiki Anting na one kind way wey bird dem take dey clean dem body. Dem go carry insect, mostly ant, rub for dem feather and skin. Bird fit hold one ant for mouth, rub am for body, or e fit go lie down where insect plenty, roll for ground like as e dey bath sand. Ant dey release chemical like formic acid wey dey help dem fight bacteria and parasite.<ref>https://bugpursuits.com/how-do-ants-use-formic-acid/</ref> == References == <references group=" Bug Pursuits. bugpursuits.com. Retrieved 13 April 2025." /> 9he9fb8yxrl28ytfsqq6p02241ek6sr 63591 63590 2025-06-16T19:47:30Z Dalvin23 2955 /* References */ 63591 wikitext text/x-wiki Anting na one kind way wey bird dem take dey clean dem body. Dem go carry insect, mostly ant, rub for dem feather and skin. Bird fit hold one ant for mouth, rub am for body, or e fit go lie down where insect plenty, roll for ground like as e dey bath sand. Ant dey release chemical like formic acid wey dey help dem fight bacteria and parasite.<ref>https://bugpursuits.com/how-do-ants-use-formic-acid/</ref>eople dey think say this formic acid fit help bird too, make dem no catch disease. Another reason be say, anting fit comot that bitter acid for the ant body, make bird fit chop am well, == References == <references group=" Bug Pursuits. bugpursuits.com. Retrieved 13 April 2025." /> 55vaoytqnp13pjnubs0av1thgzfcf0g 63592 63591 2025-06-16T19:48:08Z Dalvin23 2955 63592 wikitext text/x-wiki Anting na one kind way wey bird dem take dey clean dem body. Dem go carry insect, mostly ant, rub for dem feather and skin. Bird fit hold one ant for mouth, rub am for body, or e fit go lie down where insect plenty, roll for ground like as e dey bath sand. Ant dey release chemical like formic acid wey dey help dem fight bacteria and parasite.<ref>https://bugpursuits.com/how-do-ants-use-formic-acid/</ref>eople dey think say this formic acid fit help bird too, make dem no catch disease. Another reason be say, anting fit comot that bitter acid for the ant body, make bird fit chop am well,or e fit help add to the oil wey bird dey use rub body. More than 200 bird species sabi do this anting thing. E get as e resemble == References == <references group=" Bug Pursuits. bugpursuits.com. Retrieved 13 April 2025." /> q9qg41r6u7crjco8vrki3pa6lircnaw 63593 63592 2025-06-16T19:48:46Z Dalvin23 2955 63593 wikitext text/x-wiki Anting na one kind way wey bird dem take dey clean dem body. Dem go carry insect, mostly ant, rub for dem feather and skin. Bird fit hold one ant for mouth, rub am for body, or e fit go lie down where insect plenty, roll for ground like as e dey bath sand. Ant dey release chemical like formic acid wey dey help dem fight bacteria and parasite.<ref>https://bugpursuits.com/how-do-ants-use-formic-acid/</ref>eople dey think say this formic acid fit help bird too, make dem no catch disease. Another reason be say, anting fit comot that bitter acid for the ant body, make bird fit chop am well,or e fit help add to the oil wey bird dey use rub body. More than 200 bird species sabi do this anting thing. E get as e resemble wetin animal dey do when dem rub something for dem body by demself. == References == <references group=" Bug Pursuits. bugpursuits.com. Retrieved 13 April 2025." /> niuzctdn7kaq76i6oyrubndheb9lej8 14 17345 63603 2025-06-16T20:09:04Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63603 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17346 63604 2025-06-16T20:09:13Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63604 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17347 63605 2025-06-16T20:09:22Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63605 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17348 63606 2025-06-16T20:09:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63606 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17349 63607 2025-06-16T20:09:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63607 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17350 63608 2025-06-16T20:09:51Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63608 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17351 63609 2025-06-16T20:10:00Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63609 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 17352 63613 2025-06-16T20:32:45Z Salma A. L Suhuyini 3102 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1294605535|Kofi Abrefa Busia]]" 63613 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kofi Abrefa Busia''' (11 July 1913 – 28 August 1978)<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 August 2017|title=August 28, 1978: Prime Minister of 2nd Republic Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia Dies in London|url=https://www.eaumf.org/ejm-blog/2017/8/28/august-28-1978-prime-minister-of-2nd-republic-dr-kofi-abrefa-busia-dies-in-london|access-date=13 August 2020|website=Edward A. Ulzen Memorial Foundation|language=en-US}}</ref> na [[Ghanaian]] pipo ein political leader and academic. Im be [[Prime Minister of Ghana]] from 1969 to 1972. As a leader and prime minister, e help bring back civilian government for the country after military rule..<ref name="Martin">{{Cite book|last=Martin|first=G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rqYEhtONIBgC|title=African Political Thought|date=23 December 2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=9781137062055|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611034655/https://books.google.com/books?id=rqYEhtONIBgC|archive-date=11 June 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dem carry am comot for power for 1972 through [[military coup.]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lyons |first=Terrence |date=1997 |title=Ghana’s Encouraging Elections: A Major Step Forward |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1997.0019 |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=65–77 |doi=10.1353/jod.1997.0019 |issn=1086-3214 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> fgqz5r9q1uteewe2j1ucrz24akr9in3 63614 63613 2025-06-16T20:45:16Z Salma A. L Suhuyini 3102 63614 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kofi Abrefa Busia''' (11 July 1913 – 28 August 1978)<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 August 2017|title=August 28, 1978: Prime Minister of 2nd Republic Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia Dies in London|url=https://www.eaumf.org/ejm-blog/2017/8/28/august-28-1978-prime-minister-of-2nd-republic-dr-kofi-abrefa-busia-dies-in-london|access-date=13 August 2020|website=Edward A. Ulzen Memorial Foundation|language=en-US}}</ref> na [[Ghanaian]] pipo ein political leader and academic. Im be Prime Minister of Ghana from 1969 to 1972. As a leader and prime minister, e help bring back civilian government for the country after military rule..<ref name="Martin">{{Cite book|last=Martin|first=G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rqYEhtONIBgC|title=African Political Thought|date=23 December 2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=9781137062055|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611034655/https://books.google.com/books?id=rqYEhtONIBgC|archive-date=11 June 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dem carry am comot for power for 1972 through military coup..<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lyons |first=Terrence |date=1997 |title=Ghana’s Encouraging Elections: A Major Step Forward |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1997.0019 |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=65–77 |doi=10.1353/jod.1997.0019 |issn=1086-3214 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> lt53itz759wq8ku0o7xn4jjs3e4uybk 63617 63614 2025-06-16T21:10:18Z Salma A. L Suhuyini 3102 removed pidgin 63617 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 63626 63617 2025-06-16T22:11:14Z Salma A. L Suhuyini 3102 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1294605535|Kofi Abrefa Busia]]" 63626 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kofi Abrefa Busia''' (11 July 1913 – 28 August 1978)<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 August 2017|title=August 28, 1978: Prime Minister of 2nd Republic Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia Dies in London|url=https://www.eaumf.org/ejm-blog/2017/8/28/august-28-1978-prime-minister-of-2nd-republic-dr-kofi-abrefa-busia-dies-in-london|access-date=13 August 2020|website=Edward A. Ulzen Memorial Foundation|language=en-US}}</ref> na [[Ghanaian]] pipo ein political leader and academic. Im be [[Prime Minister of Ghana]] from 1969 to 1972. As a leader and prime minister, e help bring back civilian government for the country after military rule..<ref name="Martin">{{Cite book|last=Martin|first=G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rqYEhtONIBgC|title=African Political Thought|date=23 December 2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=9781137062055|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611034655/https://books.google.com/books?id=rqYEhtONIBgC|archive-date=11 June 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dem carry am comot for power for 1972 through [[military coup.]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lyons |first=Terrence |date=1997 |title=Ghana’s Encouraging Elections: A Major Step Forward |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1997.0019 |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=65–77 |doi=10.1353/jod.1997.0019 |issn=1086-3214 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> == How e life start plus how e take go school == Dem born Busia for [[Wenchi]], one town for Brong Ahafo Region (wey dem dey call Bono Region now),<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-09-04|title=Brong Ahafo to be known as Bono Region - MyJoyOnline.com|url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/politics/2019/February-15th/brong-ahafo-to-be-known-as-bono-region.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904041412/https://www.myjoyonline.com/politics/2019/February-15th/brong-ahafo-to-be-known-as-bono-region.php|archive-date=2019-09-04|access-date=2025-02-19|website=myjoyonline.com}}</ref>. Wenchi dey Bono region now <ref>{{Cite web|title=Dr Kofi Abrefa Busia, Ex-Prime Minister: 1969 – 1972|url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/people/person.php?ID=122|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006020000/http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/people/person.php?ID=122|archive-date=6 October 2016|access-date=4 October 2016|publisher=ghanaweb.com}}</ref> E learn for Methodist School, Wenchi, Mfantsipim School, Cape Coast, den for Wesley College, [[Kumasi]], from 1931 to 1932. E teach for Wesley College and lef go study for Achimota College for 1935 and e teach there too. E get im first degree with Honours for Medieval and Modern History from University of London, through correspondence for dat time. Den him go study for University College, Oxford, na him be di first African student for di college. He come back to Gold Coast for 1942.<ref name="Heads of States and Governments Since 1945">{{Cite book|last=Lentz|first=Harris M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D6HKAgAAQBAJ&q=Kofi+Abrefa+Busia+born&pg=PA320|title=Heads of States and Governments Since 1945|date=4 February 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-26490-2|page=320}}</ref>He take BA (Hons) for Philosophy, Politics, and Economics for 1941, MA for 1946, and DPhil for Social Anthropology for 1947 at Nuffield College, Oxford, with thesis wey dem call "The position of the chief in the modern political system of Ashanti: a study of the influence of contemporary social changes on Ashanti political institutions". Na Fulbright scholar e be for 1954.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fulbright Notable Alumni: Heads of State/Government|url=https://eca.state.gov/fulbright/fulbright-alumni/notable-fulbrighters/heads-stategovernment}}</ref> == Political career == f7q11d4b83c16qntj81zg5ewt3csdoc 0 17353 63618 2025-06-16T21:10:40Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 African-American people wey be Muslims 63618 wikitext text/x-wiki African-American Muslims, wey people also dey call Black Muslims, be small group of religious people among African-Americans. Dem make over 20% of all the Muslims wey dey America. Dem be one of the big Muslim groups for the U.S., 'cause no one tribe or ethnic group be majority for Muslims there. Most of dem be Sunni Muslims, but small number dey wey be Shia and some dey inside Nation of Islam too. The Muslim religion get link to African-American history from time way back, even from Revolutionary and Antebellum times. 8clxmgs56kne8iqh8nbfn6tzhzthz53 0 17354 63627 2025-06-16T22:11:32Z Deishini Mariam 1761 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295303238|Ta-Nehisi Coates and His Case for Reparations]]" 63627 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ta-Nehisi Paul Coates''' (bon am September 30, 1975) e be like say he be an American author, journalist, plus activist wey ein shades gain national prominence demma influential work on racial justice and [[Reparations for slavery|reparations]] in the [[United States]]. His 2014 article "De Case for Reparations," published in ''The Atlantic'', is widely regarded as one of de most significant pieces of journalism on race relations insyde 21st century wey dem no credit demma revitalizer of de national conversation about reparations for slavery and systemic racism. Coates's work take combine rigorous historical research with personal narrative to examine de ongoing effects of slavery, [[Jim Crow laws]], and discriminatory policies on African Americans. His advocacy for reparations is grounded in detailed documentation of how federal policies systematically excluded Black Americans from wealth-building opportunities, particularly in housing, creating persistent racial wealth gaps that continue today. == Early Life and Education == [[Category:Pages using infobox person with multiple parents]] mbbbfvait45va9m5wpo4rl1tzvqid9t 63660 63627 2025-06-16T23:10:52Z Deishini Mariam 1761 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295303238|Ta-Nehisi Coates and His Case for Reparations]]" 63660 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ta-Nehisi Paul Coates''' (bon am September 30, 1975) e be like say he be an American author, journalist, plus activist wey ein shades gain national prominence demma influential work on racial justice and [[Reparations for slavery|reparations]] in the [[United States]]. His 2014 article "De Case for Reparations," published in ''The Atlantic'', is widely regarded as one of de most significant pieces of journalism on race relations insyde 21st century wey dem no credit demma revitalizer of de national conversation about reparations for slavery and systemic racism. Coates's work take combine rigorous historical research with personal narrative to examine de ongoing effects of slavery, [[Jim Crow laws]], and discriminatory policies on African Americans. His advocacy for reparations is grounded in detailed documentation of how federal policies systematically excluded Black Americans from wealth-building opportunities, particularly in housing, creating persistent racial wealth gaps that continue today. == Early Life and Education == Dem Dey bon Ta-Nehisi Coates was insyde Baltimore, Maryland, to Paul Coates, a Vietnam War veteran and former Black Panther who founded Black Classic Press, and Cheryl Waters, a teacher. Named after de ancient Egyptian pharaoh Ta-Nehisi, Coates grew up in West Baltimore during the height of the crack epidemic and urban decay. Coates don’t dey attend Howard University, which dey take am describe as ein "Mecca," though he lef before graduating to pursue a career in journalism. Demma time at Howard, a [[Historically black colleges and universities|historically black university]], profoundly shaped ein understanding of African American history and culture, themes that would later permeate his writing. == Career == Coates began ein journalism career writing for local publications before joining de ''Atlantic'' as a blogger insyde 2008. He don’t dey come national correspondent for de magazine, where he wrote extensively about race, politics, and American history. Ein work combined personal narrative plus rigorous historical analysis, establishing him as one of de most influential voices on race in contemporary American media. == Congressional Testimony == [[Category:Pages using infobox person with multiple parents]] b02tc8elz7v82xjgo1e54wnih06r8ea 63781 63660 2025-06-17T07:28:30Z Deishini Mariam 1761 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295303238|Ta-Nehisi Coates and His Case for Reparations]]" 63781 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ta-Nehisi Paul Coates''' (bon am September 30, 1975) e be like say he be an American author, journalist, plus activist wey ein shades gain national prominence demma influential work on racial justice and [[Reparations for slavery|reparations]] in the [[United States]]. His 2014 article "De Case for Reparations," published in ''The Atlantic'', is widely regarded as one of de most significant pieces of journalism on race relations insyde 21st century wey dem no credit demma revitalizer of de national conversation about reparations for slavery and systemic racism. Coates's work take combine rigorous historical research with personal narrative to examine de ongoing effects of slavery, [[Jim Crow laws]], and discriminatory policies on African Americans. His advocacy for reparations is grounded in detailed documentation of how federal policies systematically excluded Black Americans from wealth-building opportunities, particularly in housing, creating persistent racial wealth gaps that continue today. == Early Life and Education == Dem Dey bon Ta-Nehisi Coates was insyde Baltimore, Maryland, to Paul Coates, a Vietnam War veteran and former Black Panther who founded Black Classic Press, and Cheryl Waters, a teacher. Named after de ancient Egyptian pharaoh Ta-Nehisi, Coates grew up in West Baltimore during the height of the crack epidemic and urban decay. Coates don’t dey attend Howard University, which dey take am describe as ein "Mecca," though he lef before graduating to pursue a career in journalism. Demma time at Howard, a [[Historically black colleges and universities|historically black university]], profoundly shaped ein understanding of African American history and culture, themes that would later permeate his writing. == Career == Coates began ein journalism career writing for local publications before joining de ''Atlantic'' as a blogger insyde 2008. He don’t dey come national correspondent for de magazine, where he wrote extensively about race, politics, and American history. Ein work combined personal narrative plus rigorous historical analysis, establishing him as one of de most influential voices on race in contemporary American media. == Congressional Testimony == On June 19, 2019 (Juneteenth), Coates don’t testify before de House Judiciary Subcommittee on de Constitution, Civil Rights, ein Civil Liberties regarding H.R. 40, de Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act. Ein testimony, don’t Dey deliver alongside actor Danny Glover ein other advocates, marked de first congressional hearing on reparations in over a decade. Coates don’t receiv numerous awards for ein work on reparations ein racial justice: * MacArthur Fellowship (2015) - Often called de "genius grant"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ta-Nehisi Coates|url=https://www.macfound.org/fellows/class-of-2015/ta-nehisi-coates/|access-date=2024-01-15|website=MacArthur Foundation}}</ref> * National Book Award for Nonfiction (2015) for ''Between de World and Me'' * George Polk Award for Commentary (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|title=2014 George Polk Awards|url=https://www.liu.edu/polk/2014-winners|access-date=2024-01-15|website=Long Island University}}</ref> * Kirkus Prize for Nonfiction (2015) [[Category:Pages using infobox person with multiple parents]] dp4jwbkd5cjpjssblebncae08l0vian 63782 63781 2025-06-17T07:29:02Z Deishini Mariam 1761 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295303238|Ta-Nehisi Coates and His Case for Reparations]]" 63782 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ta-Nehisi Paul Coates''' (bon am September 30, 1975) e be like say he be an American author, journalist, plus activist wey ein shades gain national prominence demma influential work on racial justice and [[Reparations for slavery|reparations]] in the [[United States]]. His 2014 article "De Case for Reparations," published in ''The Atlantic'', is widely regarded as one of de most significant pieces of journalism on race relations insyde 21st century wey dem no credit demma revitalizer of de national conversation about reparations for slavery and systemic racism. Coates's work take combine rigorous historical research with personal narrative to examine de ongoing effects of slavery, [[Jim Crow laws]], and discriminatory policies on African Americans. His advocacy for reparations is grounded in detailed documentation of how federal policies systematically excluded Black Americans from wealth-building opportunities, particularly in housing, creating persistent racial wealth gaps that continue today. == Early Life and Education == Dem Dey bon Ta-Nehisi Coates was insyde Baltimore, Maryland, to Paul Coates, a Vietnam War veteran and former Black Panther who founded Black Classic Press, and Cheryl Waters, a teacher. Named after de ancient Egyptian pharaoh Ta-Nehisi, Coates grew up in West Baltimore during the height of the crack epidemic and urban decay. Coates don’t dey attend Howard University, which dey take am describe as ein "Mecca," though he lef before graduating to pursue a career in journalism. Demma time at Howard, a [[Historically black colleges and universities|historically black university]], profoundly shaped ein understanding of African American history and culture, themes that would later permeate his writing. == Career == Coates began ein journalism career writing for local publications before joining de ''Atlantic'' as a blogger insyde 2008. He don’t dey come national correspondent for de magazine, where he wrote extensively about race, politics, and American history. Ein work combined personal narrative plus rigorous historical analysis, establishing him as one of de most influential voices on race in contemporary American media. == Congressional Testimony == On June 19, 2019 (Juneteenth), Coates don’t testify before de House Judiciary Subcommittee on de Constitution, Civil Rights, ein Civil Liberties regarding H.R. 40, de Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act. Ein testimony, don’t Dey deliver alongside actor Danny Glover ein other advocates, marked de first congressional hearing on reparations in over a decade. Coates don’t receive numerous awards for ein work on reparations ein racial justice: * MacArthur Fellowship (2015) - Often called de "genius grant"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ta-Nehisi Coates|url=https://www.macfound.org/fellows/class-of-2015/ta-nehisi-coates/|access-date=2024-01-15|website=MacArthur Foundation}}</ref> * National Book Award for Nonfiction (2015) for ''Between de World and Me'' * George Polk Award for Commentary (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|title=2014 George Polk Awards|url=https://www.liu.edu/polk/2014-winners|access-date=2024-01-15|website=Long Island University}}</ref> * Kirkus Prize for Nonfiction (2015) [[Category:Pages using infobox person with multiple parents]] 5vizn484biw1lqgf8qfhp29qqz2a70y 14 17355 63630 2025-06-16T22:39:29Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63630 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17356 63631 2025-06-16T22:41:45Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63631 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17357 63632 2025-06-16T22:41:58Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63632 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17358 63633 2025-06-16T22:43:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63633 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17359 63634 2025-06-16T22:44:24Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63634 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17360 63635 2025-06-16T22:45:04Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63635 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17361 63636 2025-06-16T22:45:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63636 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17362 63637 2025-06-16T22:45:23Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63637 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 17363 63639 2025-06-16T22:47:17Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63639 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> plgyyz0r8ih9842yin86pfsh6f46pyf 63698 63639 2025-06-17T00:24:43Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63698 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> oycuf1vbpb8ycslnmembox9i0k6ikfh 63699 63698 2025-06-17T00:30:24Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63699 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. p4didwdnv777z7qoxdhyphen6d4c4c3 63700 63699 2025-06-17T00:34:09Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63700 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. 6ki09or8847b4whx5hd1z9tykli6i02 63701 63700 2025-06-17T00:38:10Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63701 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. Some of di most common diseases wey people dey classify as autoimmune include coeliac disease, type 1 diabetes, [[Graves' disease]], inflammatory bowel diseases (lik say [[Crohn's disease]] einulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,<ref name="Erjavec">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Erjavec SO, Gelfman S, Abdelaziz AR, Lee EY, Monga I, Alkelai A, Ionita-Laza I, Petukhova L, Christiano AM |date=February 2022 |title=Whole exome sequencing in Alopecia Areata identifies rare variants in KRT82 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=800 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..800E |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28343-3 |pmc=8831607 |pmid=35145093}}</ref> Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ein systemic lupus erythematosus. To diagnose autoimmune diseases fit no easy because dem get plenty different ways wey dem fit show and many symptoms dey come and go. dhpnggrv1569xla7njz1b9kl92k17sm 63702 63701 2025-06-17T00:40:29Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63702 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. Some of di most common diseases wey people dey classify as autoimmune include coeliac disease, type 1 diabetes, [[Graves' disease]], inflammatory bowel diseases (lik say [[Crohn's disease]] ein ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,<ref name="Erjavec">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Erjavec SO, Gelfman S, Abdelaziz AR, Lee EY, Monga I, Alkelai A, Ionita-Laza I, Petukhova L, Christiano AM |date=February 2022 |title=Whole exome sequencing in Alopecia Areata identifies rare variants in KRT82 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=800 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..800E |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28343-3 |pmc=8831607 |pmid=35145093}}</ref> Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ein systemic lupus erythematosus. To diagnose autoimmune diseases fit no easy because dem get plenty different ways wey dem fit show and many symptoms dey come and go. 1ta0nkjnlpjpgtg2n36ng67a51o0qgp 63703 63702 2025-06-17T00:42:37Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63703 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. Some of di most common diseases wey people dey classify as autoimmune include coeliac disease, type 1 diabetes, [[Graves' disease]], inflammatory bowel diseases (lik say [[Crohn's disease]] ein ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,<ref name="Erjavec">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Erjavec SO, Gelfman S, Abdelaziz AR, Lee EY, Monga I, Alkelai A, Ionita-Laza I, Petukhova L, Christiano AM |date=February 2022 |title=Whole exome sequencing in Alopecia Areata identifies rare variants in KRT82 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=800 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..800E |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28343-3 |pmc=8831607 |pmid=35145093}}</ref> Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ein systemic lupus erythematosus. To diagnose autoimmune diseases fit no easy because dem get plenty different ways wey dem fit show and many symptoms dey come and go. Di way wey dem fit take remove self-reactive T cells na through wetin dem dey call "negative selection" for di thymus, wey na di organ wey dey help T cells grow. Dis process na important way wey dey protect us from autoimmunity. If dis protective ways no work well, plenty self-reactive cells fit dey active for di immune system, and dis fit lead to autoimmune diseases. === Molecular mimicry === srjjge8ejnyust7vhx1128c7co0rgmz 63704 63703 2025-06-17T00:46:16Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63704 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. Some of di most common diseases wey people dey classify as autoimmune include coeliac disease, type 1 diabetes, [[Graves' disease]], inflammatory bowel diseases (lik say [[Crohn's disease]] ein ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,<ref name="Erjavec">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Erjavec SO, Gelfman S, Abdelaziz AR, Lee EY, Monga I, Alkelai A, Ionita-Laza I, Petukhova L, Christiano AM |date=February 2022 |title=Whole exome sequencing in Alopecia Areata identifies rare variants in KRT82 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=800 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..800E |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28343-3 |pmc=8831607 |pmid=35145093}}</ref> Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ein systemic lupus erythematosus. To diagnose autoimmune diseases fit no easy because dem get plenty different ways wey dem fit show and many symptoms dey come and go. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) E dey target di joints well well, dey cause inflammation wey no go just disappear, and dis one fit lead to joint damage and pain. E dey usually symmetrical, meaning if one hand or knee get am, di other one go still get am too. RA fit still affect di heart, lungs, and eyes. On top dat, di chronic inflammation and di way wey di immune system dey overly active fit create environment wey go allow other cells to change for bad, wey fit explain why e dey connect with cancer of di lungs and skin, plus di higher risk of other blood cancers, wey no dey directly affected by di inflammation of di joints. === Psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis === Di way wey dem fit take remove self-reactive T cells na through wetin dem dey call "negative selection" for di thymus, wey na di organ wey dey help T cells grow. Dis process na important way wey dey protect us from autoimmunity. If dis protective ways no work well, plenty self-reactive cells fit dey active for di immune system, and dis fit lead to autoimmune diseases. === Molecular mimicry === jylin24q4hmbga4ucqms5bgi4ksjopy 63705 63704 2025-06-17T00:46:42Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63705 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. Some of di most common diseases wey people dey classify as autoimmune include coeliac disease, type 1 diabetes, [[Graves' disease]], inflammatory bowel diseases (lik say [[Crohn's disease]] ein ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,<ref name="Erjavec">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Erjavec SO, Gelfman S, Abdelaziz AR, Lee EY, Monga I, Alkelai A, Ionita-Laza I, Petukhova L, Christiano AM |date=February 2022 |title=Whole exome sequencing in Alopecia Areata identifies rare variants in KRT82 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=800 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..800E |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28343-3 |pmc=8831607 |pmid=35145093}}</ref> Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ein systemic lupus erythematosus. To diagnose autoimmune diseases fit no easy because dem get plenty different ways wey dem fit show and many symptoms dey come and go. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) E dey target di joints well well, dey cause inflammation wey no go just disappear, and dis one fit lead to joint damage and pain. E dey usually symmetrical, meaning if one hand or knee get am, di other one go still get am too. RA fit still affect di heart, lungs, and eyes. On top dat, di chronic inflammation and di way wey di immune system dey overly active fit create environment wey go allow other cells to change for bad, wey fit explain why e dey connect with ++++++++++++cancer of di lungs and skin, plus di higher risk of other blood cancers, wey no dey directly affected by di inflammation of di joints. === Psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis === Di way wey dem fit take remove self-reactive T cells na through wetin dem dey call "negative selection" for di thymus, wey na di organ wey dey help T cells grow. Dis process na important way wey dey protect us from autoimmunity. If dis protective ways no work well, plenty self-reactive cells fit dey active for di immune system, and dis fit lead to autoimmune diseases. === Molecular mimicry === 2j6yliy48zvwltsf6ttge4nwzg1nmt4 63706 63705 2025-06-17T00:56:11Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63706 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. Some of di most common diseases wey people dey classify as autoimmune include coeliac disease, type 1 diabetes, [[Graves' disease]], inflammatory bowel diseases (lik say [[Crohn's disease]] ein ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,<ref name="Erjavec">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Erjavec SO, Gelfman S, Abdelaziz AR, Lee EY, Monga I, Alkelai A, Ionita-Laza I, Petukhova L, Christiano AM |date=February 2022 |title=Whole exome sequencing in Alopecia Areata identifies rare variants in KRT82 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=800 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..800E |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28343-3 |pmc=8831607 |pmid=35145093}}</ref> Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ein systemic lupus erythematosus. To diagnose autoimmune diseases fit no easy because dem get plenty different ways wey dem fit show and many symptoms dey come and go. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) E dey target di joints well well, dey cause inflammation wey no go just disappear, and dis one fit lead to joint damage and pain. E dey usually symmetrical, meaning if one hand or knee get am, di other one go still get am too. RA fit still affect di heart, lungs, and eyes. On top dat, di chronic inflammation and di way wey di immune system dey overly active fit create environment wey go allow other cells to change for bad, wey fit explain why e dey connect with ++++++++++++cancer of di lungs and skin, plus di higher risk of other blood cancers, wey no dey directly affected by di inflammation of di joints. === Psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis === Psoriasis ebe skin condition characterized sek of rapid buildup wana skin cells, fe give scaling wana skin top surface. Inflammation ein redness around dema scales e common.<ref name="National Library of Medicine 2019 x804">{{Cite web|date=2019-02-20|title=Psoriasis - Psoriatic Arthritis|url=https://medlineplus.gov/psoriasis.html|access-date=2023-06-25|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Some individuals with psoriasis also fi develop psoriatic arthritis, which causes joint pain, stiffness, and swelling.<ref name="National Library of Medicine 2016 i430">{{Cite web|date=2016-08-25|title=Psoriatic Arthritis|url=https://medlineplus.gov/psoriaticarthritis.html|access-date=2023-06-25|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Di way wey dem fit take remove self-reactive T cells na through wetin dem dey call "negative selection" for di thymus, wey na di organ wey dey help T cells grow. Dis process na important way wey dey protect us from autoimmunity. If dis protective ways no work well, plenty self-reactive cells fit dey active for di immune system, and dis fit lead to autoimmune diseases. === Molecular mimicry === 62aja9p2zei4ycoo1o65pgzkahs27lq 63707 63706 2025-06-17T01:02:36Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63707 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. Some of di most common diseases wey people dey classify as autoimmune include coeliac disease, type 1 diabetes, [[Graves' disease]], inflammatory bowel diseases (lik say [[Crohn's disease]] ein ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,<ref name="Erjavec">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Erjavec SO, Gelfman S, Abdelaziz AR, Lee EY, Monga I, Alkelai A, Ionita-Laza I, Petukhova L, Christiano AM |date=February 2022 |title=Whole exome sequencing in Alopecia Areata identifies rare variants in KRT82 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=800 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..800E |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28343-3 |pmc=8831607 |pmid=35145093}}</ref> Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ein systemic lupus erythematosus. To diagnose autoimmune diseases fit no easy because dem get plenty different ways wey dem fit show and many symptoms dey come and go. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) E dey target di joints well well, dey cause inflammation wey no go just disappear, and dis one fit lead to joint damage and pain. E dey usually symmetrical, meaning if one hand or knee get am, di other one go still get am too. RA fit still affect di heart, lungs, and eyes. On top dat, di chronic inflammation and di way wey di immune system dey overly active fit create environment wey go allow other cells to change for bad, wey fit explain why e dey connect with ++++++++++++cancer of di lungs and skin, plus di higher risk of other blood cancers, wey no dey directly affected by di inflammation of di joints. === Psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis === Psoriasis ebe skin condition characterized sek of rapid buildup wana skin cells, fe give scaling wana skin top surface. Inflammation ein redness around dema scales e common.<ref name="National Library of Medicine 2019 x804">{{Cite web|date=2019-02-20|title=Psoriasis - Psoriatic Arthritis|url=https://medlineplus.gov/psoriasis.html|access-date=2023-06-25|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Some individuals with psoriasis also fi develop psoriatic arthritis, which causes joint pain, stiffness, and swelling.<ref name="National Library of Medicine 2016 i430">{{Cite web|date=2016-08-25|title=Psoriatic Arthritis|url=https://medlineplus.gov/psoriaticarthritis.html|access-date=2023-06-25|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Di way wey dem fit take remove self-reactive T cells na through wetin dem dey call "negative selection" for di thymus, wey na di organ wey dey help T cells grow. Dis process na important way wey dey protect us from autoimmunity. If dis protective ways no work well, plenty self-reactive cells fit dey active for di immune system, and dis fit lead to autoimmune diseases. === Molecular mimicry === === Vitamin D influence on immune response === Vitamin D E dey known as immune regulator wey dey help for di adaptive and innate immune response. If person no get enough vitamin D, whether na from family genes or wetin dey happen for di environment, e fit make di immune response no strong and no efficient, and dis one fit contribute to di development of autoimmune diseases. When vitamin D dey present, dem go encode and express vitamin D response elements through pattern recognition receptors responses and di genes wey dey associated with those responses. Di specific DNA target sequence wey dem dey express na 1,25-(OH)2D3. Di expression of 1,25-(OH)2D3 fit happen when macrophages, dendritic cells, T-cells, and B-cells dey around. When 1,25-(OH)2D3 dey present, di immune system go reduce di production of inflammatory cytokines and go express more tolerogenic regulatory T-cells. Dis one dey happen because vitamin D dey influence how cells dey mature, especially T-cells, and how dem dey show their phenotype. If 1,25-(OH)2D3 no dey express well, e fit lead to less tolerant regulatory T-cells, more presentation of antigens to less tolerant T-cells, and increase inflammatory response. 16:01 .<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Harrison SR, Li D, Jeffery LE, Raza K, Hewison M |date=January 2020 |title=Vitamin D, Autoimmune Disease and Rheumatoid Arthritis |journal=Calcified Tissue International |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=58–75 |doi=10.1007/s00223-019-00577-2 |pmc=6960236 |pmid=31286174}}</ref> * Epigenetics of autoimmune disorders * List of autoimmune diseases * Immune dysregulation 9v7tfat2fxo48hdfjdl5fvsfwjy216g 63708 63707 2025-06-17T01:13:01Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63708 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. Some of di most common diseases wey people dey classify as autoimmune include coeliac disease, type 1 diabetes, [[Graves' disease]], inflammatory bowel diseases (lik say [[Crohn's disease]] ein ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,<ref name="Erjavec">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Erjavec SO, Gelfman S, Abdelaziz AR, Lee EY, Monga I, Alkelai A, Ionita-Laza I, Petukhova L, Christiano AM |date=February 2022 |title=Whole exome sequencing in Alopecia Areata identifies rare variants in KRT82 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=800 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..800E |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28343-3 |pmc=8831607 |pmid=35145093}}</ref> Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ein systemic lupus erythematosus. To diagnose autoimmune diseases fit no easy because dem get plenty different ways wey dem fit show and many symptoms dey come and go. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) E dey target di joints well well, dey cause inflammation wey no go just disappear, and dis one fit lead to joint damage and pain. E dey usually symmetrical, meaning if one hand or knee get am, di other one go still get am too. RA fit still affect di heart, lungs, and eyes. On top dat, di chronic inflammation and di way wey di immune system dey overly active fit create environment wey go allow other cells to change for bad, wey fit explain why e dey connect with ++++++++++++cancer of di lungs and skin, plus di higher risk of other blood cancers, wey no dey directly affected by di inflammation of di joints. === Psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis === Psoriasis ebe skin condition characterized sek of rapid buildup wana skin cells, fe give scaling wana skin top surface. Inflammation ein redness around dema scales e common.<ref name="National Library of Medicine 2019 x804">{{Cite web|date=2019-02-20|title=Psoriasis - Psoriatic Arthritis|url=https://medlineplus.gov/psoriasis.html|access-date=2023-06-25|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Some individuals with psoriasis also fi develop psoriatic arthritis, which causes joint pain, stiffness, and swelling.<ref name="National Library of Medicine 2016 i430">{{Cite web|date=2016-08-25|title=Psoriatic Arthritis|url=https://medlineplus.gov/psoriaticarthritis.html|access-date=2023-06-25|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Sjögren syndrome e bi long-term autoimmune disease wey affect wana body's moisture-ein go give glands (lacrimal ein salivary),<ref name="NIH2014Fact">{{Cite web|date=November 2014|title=What Is Sjögren's Syndrome? Fast Facts|url=http://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/sjogrens_syndrome/sjogrens_syndrome_ff.asp|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704210602/http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Sjogrens_Syndrome/sjogrens_syndrome_ff.asp|archive-date=4 July 2016|access-date=15 July 2016|website=NIAMS}}</ref> e say say ein sain give often hard affect other organ systems, fi e cach dema lungs, kidneys, and nervous system. === Systemic lupus erythematosus === Systemic lupus erythematosus,Lupus, also known as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), na one kind autoimmune disease wey dey affect multiple organs for di body, like di skin, joints, kidneys, and di nervous system. E dey happen when di immune system dey lose tolerance, meaning e go dey attack di body's own tissues and organs. Di symptoms of lupus fit range from mild to severe, and dem dey come and go in periods wey dem dey call flares and remissions. Women, particularly those wey dey in di childbearing age, dey affected more by di disease compared to men. This imbalance fit be linked to hormonal factors and genetic predispositions. Lupus fit present with various symptoms like joint pain, skin rashes, fatigue, and kidney issues, among others. Treatment usually involve managing di symptoms and reducing di immune system activity to prevent damage to organs. Di immune system get special mechanisms wey help am sabi di difference between self (di body's own cells) and non-self (foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses). Dis ability, wey dem dey call immune tolerance, na crucial part of how di immune system dey function normally. For healthy individuals, immune tolerance dey ensure say di immune system no go mistakenly attack di body’s own cells. Dis tolerance dey maintained through several processes, including: 1. Central Tolerance: Dis na di process wey dey happen for di thymus and bone marrow, where immature immune cells wey react strongly to self-antigens go either be eliminated or modified. 2. Peripheral Tolerance: After immune cells don mature and leave di central organs, peripheral tolerance dey help prevent activated immune cells from attacking self-tissues. Dis fit involve regulatory T cells (Tregs) wey dey suppress unwanted immune responses. When dis tolerance fail, e fit lead to autoimmune diseases, where di immune system dey produce autoantibodies—antibodies wey target di body’s own proteins and tissues. Dis can result in inflammation and damage to various organs, leading to symptoms wey fit vary widely depending on di specific disease and di organs involved. For example, in lupus, di immune system dey produce antibodies against a range of self-antigens, including nuclear components, which fit affect multiple systems in di body. Understanding how immune tolerance dey break down in autoimmune diseases fit help researchers develop better treatments and management strategies for these conditions. === Negative selection ein dema role wana thymus === Di way wey dem fit take remove self-reactive T cells na through wetin dem dey call "negative selection" for di thymus, wey na di organ wey dey help T cells grow. Dis process na important way wey dey protect us from autoimmunity. If dis protective ways no work well, plenty self-reactive cells fit dey active for di immune system, and dis fit lead to autoimmune diseases. === Molecular mimicry === === Vitamin D influence on immune response === Vitamin D E dey known as immune regulator wey dey help for di adaptive and innate immune response. If person no get enough vitamin D, whether na from family genes or wetin dey happen for di environment, e fit make di immune response no strong and no efficient, and dis one fit contribute to di development of autoimmune diseases. When vitamin D dey present, dem go encode and express vitamin D response elements through pattern recognition receptors responses and di genes wey dey associated with those responses. Di specific DNA target sequence wey dem dey express na 1,25-(OH)2D3. Di expression of 1,25-(OH)2D3 fit happen when macrophages, dendritic cells, T-cells, and B-cells dey around. When 1,25-(OH)2D3 dey present, di immune system go reduce di production of inflammatory cytokines and go express more tolerogenic regulatory T-cells. Dis one dey happen because vitamin D dey influence how cells dey mature, especially T-cells, and how dem dey show their phenotype. If 1,25-(OH)2D3 no dey express well, e fit lead to less tolerant regulatory T-cells, more presentation of antigens to less tolerant T-cells, and increase inflammatory response. .<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Harrison SR, Li D, Jeffery LE, Raza K, Hewison M |date=January 2020 |title=Vitamin D, Autoimmune Disease and Rheumatoid Arthritis |journal=Calcified Tissue International |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=58–75 |doi=10.1007/s00223-019-00577-2 |pmc=6960236 |pmid=31286174}}</ref> * Epigenetics wana autoimmune disorders * List wana autoimmune diseases * Immune dysregulation n7ax16y0zvco3jl8l1f040mj1h4txgi 63712 63708 2025-06-17T01:36:18Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63712 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. Some of di most common diseases wey people dey classify as autoimmune include coeliac disease, type 1 diabetes, [[Graves' disease]], inflammatory bowel diseases (lik say [[Crohn's disease]] ein ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,<ref name="Erjavec">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Erjavec SO, Gelfman S, Abdelaziz AR, Lee EY, Monga I, Alkelai A, Ionita-Laza I, Petukhova L, Christiano AM |date=February 2022 |title=Whole exome sequencing in Alopecia Areata identifies rare variants in KRT82 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=800 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..800E |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28343-3 |pmc=8831607 |pmid=35145093}}</ref> Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ein systemic lupus erythematosus. To diagnose autoimmune diseases fit no easy because dem get plenty different ways wey dem fit show and many symptoms dey come and go. Autoimmune diseases represent a vast and diverse category of disorders that, despite their differences, share some common symptomatic threads.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> These shared symptoms occur as a result of the body's immune system mistakenly attacking its own cells and tissues, causing inflammation and damage. However, due to the broad range of autoimmune diseases, the specific presentation of symptoms can significantly vary based on the type of disease, the organ systems affected, and individual factors such as age, sex, hormonal status, and environmental influences.<ref name="NIH" /> Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) E dey target di joints well well, dey cause inflammation wey no go just disappear, and dis one fit lead to joint damage and pain. E dey usually symmetrical, meaning if one hand or knee get am, di other one go still get am too. RA fit still affect di heart, lungs, and eyes. On top dat, di chronic inflammation and di way wey di immune system dey overly active fit create environment wey go allow other cells to change for bad, wey fit explain why e dey connect with ++++++++++++cancer of di lungs and skin, plus di higher risk of other blood cancers, wey no dey directly affected by di inflammation of di joints. === Psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis === Psoriasis ebe skin condition characterized sek of rapid buildup wana skin cells, fe give scaling wana skin top surface. Inflammation ein redness around dema scales e common.<ref name="National Library of Medicine 2019 x804">{{Cite web|date=2019-02-20|title=Psoriasis - Psoriatic Arthritis|url=https://medlineplus.gov/psoriasis.html|access-date=2023-06-25|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Some individuals with psoriasis also fi develop psoriatic arthritis, which causes joint pain, stiffness, and swelling.<ref name="National Library of Medicine 2016 i430">{{Cite web|date=2016-08-25|title=Psoriatic Arthritis|url=https://medlineplus.gov/psoriaticarthritis.html|access-date=2023-06-25|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Sjögren syndrome e bi long-term autoimmune disease wey affect wana body's moisture-ein go give glands (lacrimal ein salivary),<ref name="NIH2014Fact">{{Cite web|date=November 2014|title=What Is Sjögren's Syndrome? Fast Facts|url=http://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/sjogrens_syndrome/sjogrens_syndrome_ff.asp|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704210602/http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Sjogrens_Syndrome/sjogrens_syndrome_ff.asp|archive-date=4 July 2016|access-date=15 July 2016|website=NIAMS}}</ref> e say say ein sain give often hard affect other organ systems, fi e cach dema lungs, kidneys, and nervous system. === Systemic lupus erythematosus === Systemic lupus erythematosus,Lupus, also known as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), na one kind autoimmune disease wey dey affect multiple organs for di body, like di skin, joints, kidneys, and di nervous system. E dey happen when di immune system dey lose tolerance, meaning e go dey attack di body's own tissues and organs. Di symptoms of lupus fit range from mild to severe, and dem dey come and go in periods wey dem dey call flares and remissions. Women, particularly those wey dey in di childbearing age, dey affected more by di disease compared to men. This imbalance fit be linked to hormonal factors and genetic predispositions. Lupus fit present with various symptoms like joint pain, skin rashes, fatigue, and kidney issues, among others. Treatment usually involve managing di symptoms and reducing di immune system activity to prevent damage to organs. Di immune system get special mechanisms wey help am sabi di difference between self (di body's own cells) and non-self (foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses). Dis ability, wey dem dey call immune tolerance, na crucial part of how di immune system dey function normally. For healthy individuals, immune tolerance dey ensure say di immune system no go mistakenly attack di body’s own cells. Dis tolerance dey maintained through several processes, including: 1. Central Tolerance: Dis na di process wey dey happen for di thymus and bone marrow, where immature immune cells wey react strongly to self-antigens go either be eliminated or modified. 2. Peripheral Tolerance: After immune cells don mature and leave di central organs, peripheral tolerance dey help prevent activated immune cells from attacking self-tissues. Dis fit involve regulatory T cells (Tregs) wey dey suppress unwanted immune responses. When dis tolerance fail, e fit lead to autoimmune diseases, where di immune system dey produce autoantibodies—antibodies wey target di body’s own proteins and tissues. Dis can result in inflammation and damage to various organs, leading to symptoms wey fit vary widely depending on di specific disease and di organs involved. For example, in lupus, di immune system dey produce antibodies against a range of self-antigens, including nuclear components, which fit affect multiple systems in di body. Understanding how immune tolerance dey break down in autoimmune diseases fit help researchers develop better treatments and management strategies for these conditions. === Negative selection ein dema role wana thymus === Di way wey dem fit take remove self-reactive T cells na through wetin dem dey call "negative selection" for di thymus, wey na di organ wey dey help T cells grow. Dis process na important way wey dey protect us from autoimmunity. If dis protective ways no work well, plenty self-reactive cells fit dey active for di immune system, and dis fit lead to autoimmune diseases. === Molecular mimicry === === Vitamin D influence on immune response === Vitamin D E dey known as immune regulator wey dey help for di adaptive and innate immune response. If person no get enough vitamin D, whether na from family genes or wetin dey happen for di environment, e fit make di immune response no strong and no efficient, and dis one fit contribute to di development of autoimmune diseases. When vitamin D dey present, dem go encode and express vitamin D response elements through pattern recognition receptors responses and di genes wey dey associated with those responses. Di specific DNA target sequence wey dem dey express na 1,25-(OH)2D3. Di expression of 1,25-(OH)2D3 fit happen when macrophages, dendritic cells, T-cells, and B-cells dey around. When 1,25-(OH)2D3 dey present, di immune system go reduce di production of inflammatory cytokines and go express more tolerogenic regulatory T-cells. Dis one dey happen because vitamin D dey influence how cells dey mature, especially T-cells, and how dem dey show their phenotype. If 1,25-(OH)2D3 no dey express well, e fit lead to less tolerant regulatory T-cells, more presentation of antigens to less tolerant T-cells, and increase inflammatory response. .<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Harrison SR, Li D, Jeffery LE, Raza K, Hewison M |date=January 2020 |title=Vitamin D, Autoimmune Disease and Rheumatoid Arthritis |journal=Calcified Tissue International |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=58–75 |doi=10.1007/s00223-019-00577-2 |pmc=6960236 |pmid=31286174}}</ref> * Epigenetics wana autoimmune disorders * List wana autoimmune diseases * Immune dysregulation ijmxly9b9yfjtsc4iu3p9m4gg05t8a9 63713 63712 2025-06-17T01:39:40Z Alikorea 3101 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295764269|Autoimmune disease]]" 63713 wikitext text/x-wiki de '''autoimmune disease''' ebi condition wey ein gitam from anomalous response wana adaptive immune system top, wey eday mistakenly targets den attacks healthy, functioning parts wana body as efi same delay wey non esay foreign organisms.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> efe estimated say ebi more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, wey get recent scientific evidence talk say edey exist wana potentially pass 100 distinct conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.autoimmuneregistry.org/autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-06|website=Autoimmune Registry Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A |date=May 2020 |title=The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review |journal=Cureus |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e8094 |doi=10.7759/cureus.8094 |pmc=7292717 |pmid=32542149 |s2cid=219447364 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of NIH Research on Autoimmune Diseases|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-nih-research-on-autoimmune-diseases|access-date=2022-06-13|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> Nearly every niga gonna fe involved.<ref name="Bor2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|title=Women's Health Across the Lifespan: A Pharmacotherapeutic Approach|vauthors=Borgelt LM|date=2010|publisher=ASHP|isbn=978-1-58528-194-7|page=579|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184552/https://books.google.com/books?id=riP3pxq2jWAC&pg=PA579|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases na diff'rent group from autoinflammatory diseases autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases is different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.<ref name="pmid_23322404">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zen M, Gatto M, Domeneghetti M, Palma L, Borella E, Iaccarino L, Punzi L, Doria A |date=October 2013 |title=Clinical guidelines and definitions of autoinflammatory diseases: contrasts and comparisons with autoimmunity-a comprehensive review |journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1007/s12016-013-8355-1 |pmid=23322404 |s2cid=23061331}}</ref> [[Signs and symptoms|Symptoms]] wana autoimmune diseases fi significantly vary, primarily on top dema specific type wana disease en body part wey dem dey affect. Symptoms carry often diverse and dem dey fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and hard pass fe comprise low-grade fever kk, fatigue, ein general malaise.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> sek off, some autoimmune diseases fe present cach more specific symptoms like say joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms. Di exact reasons wey cause autoimmune diseases still dey unclear, and e fit get plenty factors wey dey involved, both wetin come from genes and wetin dey happen for di environment. Some diseases like lupus dey show say e fit run for family, wey mean say e get genetic predisposition. But for other cases, dem don link am with infections or wetin people don expose to for di environment, wey mean say e dey involve complex relationship between genes and di environment for how dem dey happen. Some of di most common diseases wey people dey classify as autoimmune include coeliac disease, type 1 diabetes, [[Graves' disease]], inflammatory bowel diseases (lik say [[Crohn's disease]] ein ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,<ref name="Erjavec">{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Erjavec SO, Gelfman S, Abdelaziz AR, Lee EY, Monga I, Alkelai A, Ionita-Laza I, Petukhova L, Christiano AM |date=February 2022 |title=Whole exome sequencing in Alopecia Areata identifies rare variants in KRT82 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=800 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..800E |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28343-3 |pmc=8831607 |pmid=35145093}}</ref> Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ein systemic lupus erythematosus. To diagnose autoimmune diseases fit no easy because dem get plenty different ways wey dem fit show and many symptoms dey come and go. Autoimmune diseases represent a vast and diverse category of disorders that, despite their differences, share some common symptomatic threads.<ref name="NIH">{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=Autoimmune diseases|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/autoimmune-diseases "Autoimmune diseases"]. Office on Women's Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005144045/https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/autoimmune-diseases.html Archived] from the original on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> These shared symptoms occur as a result of the body's immune system mistakenly attacking its own cells and tissues, causing inflammation and damage. However, due to the broad range of autoimmune diseases, the specific presentation of symptoms can significantly vary based on the type of disease, the organ systems affected, and individual factors such as age, sex, hormonal status, and environmental influences.<ref name="NIH" /> Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) E dey target di joints well well, dey cause inflammation wey no go just disappear, and dis one fit lead to joint damage and pain. E dey usually symmetrical, meaning if one hand or knee get am, di other one go still get am too. RA fit still affect di heart, lungs, and eyes. On top dat, di chronic inflammation and di way wey di immune system dey overly active fit create environment wey go allow other cells to change for bad, wey fit explain why e dey connect with ++++++++++++cancer of di lungs and skin, plus di higher risk of other blood cancers, wey no dey directly affected by di inflammation of di joints. === Psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis === Psoriasis ebe skin condition characterized sek of rapid buildup wana skin cells, fe give scaling wana skin top surface. Inflammation ein redness around dema scales e common.<ref name="National Library of Medicine 2019 x804">{{Cite web|date=2019-02-20|title=Psoriasis - Psoriatic Arthritis|url=https://medlineplus.gov/psoriasis.html|access-date=2023-06-25|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Some individuals with psoriasis also fi develop psoriatic arthritis, which causes joint pain, stiffness, and swelling.<ref name="National Library of Medicine 2016 i430">{{Cite web|date=2016-08-25|title=Psoriatic Arthritis|url=https://medlineplus.gov/psoriaticarthritis.html|access-date=2023-06-25|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Sjögren syndrome e bi long-term autoimmune disease wey affect wana body's moisture-ein go give glands (lacrimal ein salivary),<ref name="NIH2014Fact">{{Cite web|date=November 2014|title=What Is Sjögren's Syndrome? Fast Facts|url=http://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/sjogrens_syndrome/sjogrens_syndrome_ff.asp|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704210602/http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Sjogrens_Syndrome/sjogrens_syndrome_ff.asp|archive-date=4 July 2016|access-date=15 July 2016|website=NIAMS}}</ref> e say say ein sain give often hard affect other organ systems, fi e cach dema lungs, kidneys, and nervous system. === Systemic lupus erythematosus === Systemic lupus erythematosus,Lupus, also known as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), na one kind autoimmune disease wey dey affect multiple organs for di body, like di skin, joints, kidneys, and di nervous system. E dey happen when di immune system dey lose tolerance, meaning e go dey attack di body's own tissues and organs. Di symptoms of lupus fit range from mild to severe, and dem dey come and go in periods wey dem dey call flares and remissions. Women, particularly those wey dey in di childbearing age, dey affected more by di disease compared to men. This imbalance fit be linked to hormonal factors and genetic predispositions. Lupus fit present with various symptoms like joint pain, skin rashes, fatigue, and kidney issues, among others. Treatment usually involve managing di symptoms and reducing di immune system activity to prevent damage to organs. Di immune system get special mechanisms wey help am sabi di difference between self (di body's own cells) and non-self (foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses). Dis ability, wey dem dey call immune tolerance, na crucial part of how di immune system dey function normally. For healthy individuals, immune tolerance dey ensure say di immune system no go mistakenly attack di body’s own cells. Dis tolerance dey maintained through several processes, including: 1. Central Tolerance: Dis na di process wey dey happen for di thymus and bone marrow, where immature immune cells wey react strongly to self-antigens go either be eliminated or modified. 2. Peripheral Tolerance: After immune cells don mature and leave di central organs, peripheral tolerance dey help prevent activated immune cells from attacking self-tissues. Dis fit involve regulatory T cells (Tregs) wey dey suppress unwanted immune responses. When dis tolerance fail, e fit lead to autoimmune diseases, where di immune system dey produce autoantibodies—antibodies wey target di body’s own proteins and tissues. Dis can result in inflammation and damage to various organs, leading to symptoms wey fit vary widely depending on di specific disease and di organs involved. For example, in lupus, di immune system dey produce antibodies against a range of self-antigens, including nuclear components, which fit affect multiple systems in di body. Understanding how immune tolerance dey break down in autoimmune diseases fit help researchers develop better treatments and management strategies for these conditions. === Negative selection ein dema role wana thymus === Di way wey dem fit take remove self-reactive T cells na through wetin dem dey call "negative selection" for di thymus, wey na di organ wey dey help T cells grow. Dis process na important way wey dey protect us from autoimmunity. If dis protective ways no work well, plenty self-reactive cells fit dey active for di immune system, and dis fit lead to autoimmune diseases. === Molecular mimicry === Diagnosing autoimmune disorders can be complex sik off wide range ein diseases wey fi top category ein their often overlapping symptoms. Accurate diagnosis en crucial for determining appropriate treatment strategies. Generally, ein diagnostic process involves combination of medical history evaluation, physical examination, laboratory tests, ein, insyid wana cases, imaging or biopsies. === Vitamin D influence on immune response === Vitamin D E dey known as immune regulator wey dey help for di adaptive and innate immune response. If person no get enough vitamin D, whether na from family genes or wetin dey happen for di environment, e fit make di immune response no strong and no efficient, and dis one fit contribute to di development of autoimmune diseases. When vitamin D dey present, dem go encode and express vitamin D response elements through pattern recognition receptors responses and di genes wey dey associated with those responses. Di specific DNA target sequence wey dem dey express na 1,25-(OH)2D3. Di expression of 1,25-(OH)2D3 fit happen when macrophages, dendritic cells, T-cells, and B-cells dey around. When 1,25-(OH)2D3 dey present, di immune system go reduce di production of inflammatory cytokines and go express more tolerogenic regulatory T-cells. Dis one dey happen because vitamin D dey influence how cells dey mature, especially T-cells, and how dem dey show their phenotype. If 1,25-(OH)2D3 no dey express well, e fit lead to less tolerant regulatory T-cells, more presentation of antigens to less tolerant T-cells, and increase inflammatory response. .<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Harrison SR, Li D, Jeffery LE, Raza K, Hewison M |date=January 2020 |title=Vitamin D, Autoimmune Disease and Rheumatoid Arthritis |journal=Calcified Tissue International |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=58–75 |doi=10.1007/s00223-019-00577-2 |pmc=6960236 |pmid=31286174}}</ref> * Epigenetics wana autoimmune disorders * List wana autoimmune diseases * Immune dysregulation lpbrg3fd9ap5ry7b4pr6c717y04fgdm 14 17364 63641 2025-06-16T22:47:19Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63641 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17365 63646 2025-06-16T22:51:36Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63646 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 17366 63647 2025-06-16T22:56:42Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295356836|Nnamdi Azikiwe]]" 63647 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nnamdi Benjamin Azikiwe''', GCFR PC (16 November 1904 – 11 May 1996),<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web|title=Nnamdi Azikiwe {{!}} president of Nigeria|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nnamdi-Azikiwe|url-status=live|access-date=2022-03-26|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref> dem commonly refer am to as '''Zik of Africa''', na he be a Nigerian politician, statesman, den revolutionary leader wey serve as de 3rd den first black governor-general of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963 den de first president of Nigeria during de First Nigerian Republic (1963–1966).<ref>{{Cite news|last=French|first=Howard W.|date=1996-05-14|title=Nnamdi Azikiwe, the First President of Nigeria, Dies at 91|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/05/14/world/nnamdi-azikiwe-the-first-president-of-nigeria-dies-at-91.html|access-date=2023-12-06|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He be widely regarded as de father of Nigerian nationalism as well as one of de major driving forces behind de country ein independence insyd 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-01|title=Heroes of the struggle for Nigeria's independence/pioneer political|url=https://guardian.ng/?p=1230220|url-status=live|access-date=2022-05-24|website=The Guardian|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-11-16|title=On this day in 1904 Dr. Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe, was born in Zungeru, Niger State, North-Central Nigeria|url=http://www.jayfm.ng/2017/11/16/on-this-day-in-1904-dr-benjamin-nnamdi-azikiwe-was-born-in-zungeru-niger-state-north-central-nigeria/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805081611/http://www.jayfm.ng/2017/11/16/on-this-day-in-1904-dr-benjamin-nnamdi-azikiwe-was-born-in-zungeru-niger-state-north-central-nigeria/|archive-date=5 August 2020|access-date=2020-05-29|website=Jay FM|language=en-US}}</ref> Na dem born am insyd Zungeru insyd present-day Niger State to Igbo parents wey komot Onitsha, Anambra State, na Azikiwe learn to speak Hausa wich na be de main indigenous language of de Northern Region. Na dem later send make he live plus ein aunt den grandmommie insyd ein hometown Onitsha, wer na he learn de Igbo language. Dey live insyd Lagos State expose am to learning de Yoruba language, wey by de time na he dey insyd college, na he be exposed to different Nigerian cultures wey na he speak de three major Nigerian languages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aguolu |first=C. C. |last2=Aguolu |first2=L. E. |date=1997 |title=Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, 1904-1966, First President of Nigeria: A Force in Library Development in Nigeria |url=https://worldlibraries.dom.edu/index.php/worldlib/article/view/199 |journal=World Libraries |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |issn=2155-7896}}</ref> Na Azikiwe be well travelled. Na he move to de United States wer na dem call am '''Ben Azikiwe''', wey he attend Storer College, Columbia University, de University of Pennsylvania den Howard University. Na he contact colonial authorities plus a request to represent Nigeria at de 1932 Los Angeles Olympics since na he sanso be an athlete.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Flint |first=John E. |year=1999 |title='Managing nationalism': The colonial office and Nnamdi Azikiwe, 1932–43 |journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=143–158 |doi=10.1080/03086539908583061}}</ref> Na he return to Africa insyd 1934, wer na he start dey work as a journalist insyd de [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] (present day [[Ghana]]). During de British West Africa, na Azikiwe advocate as a political activist den journalist, for Nigerian den African nationalism.<ref>{{cite news|title=Azikiwe fights for Africa|date=7 January 1950|work=New York Amsterdam News <!-- |via=ProQuest --><!-- Needs ProQuest URL -->}}</ref> == References == [[Category:1904 births]] ar6hf2ncn1lvzbqapfpuus3sn6l004h 0 17367 63651 2025-06-16T23:01:01Z Deishini Mariam 1761 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1281892536|Bai Bureh]]" 63651 wikitext text/x-wiki == Early life and rule pre-rebellion == Bai Bureh Dey talk am say Dey bon am insyde 1840 in Kasseh, a village near Port Loko insyde Northern Sierra Leone. Bai Bureh's papa wanna be Muslim cleric ein talk say be important Loko chief and ei mama don’t be like say Temne trader from Makeni. When Bureh take be young man ein papa don’t send am to de small village of Gbendembu in northern Sierra Leone, where dem take train ein to become a warrior. During his training at de village, he don’t dey show be that he was a formidable warrior and was given de nickname of Kebalai, wey dem translate as "one who doesn’t tire of war." When Kebalai returned to ein home village, they don’t crown am as ruler of Kasseh.<ref name="sierra-leone">{{Cite web|title=Bai Bureh|url=http://www.sierra-leone.org/heroes5.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107114610/http://www.sierra-leone.org/heroes5.html|archive-date=2007-01-07|access-date=2007-01-17|publisher=sierra-leone.org}}</ref> During de 1860s and 1870s, Bureh take be de top warrior of Port Loko and de entire Northern Sierra Leone. He successfully fought and won wars against other villagers and tribal leaders who were against ein plan to establish correct [[Islam|Islamic]] and indigenous practices throughout Northern Sierra Leone. Insyde 1882, Bureh don’t dey fight against de Susu people from French Guinea (now [[Guinea]]) who invaded Kambia, a town in northern Sierra Leone. Bai Bureh's fighters don’t defeat de Susu, take pushed am demma back into French Guinea and returned de land to de local Kambia people. After winning several major wars, ein popularity spread. De people of de north felt they don’t find a warrior who would take defend demma land. In 1886, Bai Bureh was crowned as de chief of Northern Sierra Leone. dh3pmic6ce94lebi20zxd4ug8tzmvrk 0 17368 63655 2025-06-16T23:05:54Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1292531930|Oliver Tambo]]" 63655 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Oliver Reginald Kaizana Tambo''' (27 October 1917 – 24 April 1993) wey be a South African anti-apartheid politician and activist who dey served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) from 1967 to 1991. == Biography == === Childhood === Oliver Tambo wey them born on 27 October 1917 in the village of Nkantolo in Bizana; eastern Pondoland wey them dey calledin Eastern Cape for now. Most of the people wey them found in the village wey be farmers. His Papa, Mzimeni Tambo, dey be a son of a farmer and an assistant salesperson wey found at a local trading store. Mzimeni dey get four wives and ten children, all of whom wey school proper. Oliver's mother, Mzimeni's wey be third wife, was called Julia. 9boni3vp3412x1mv621hxuj4re9h73w 63657 63655 2025-06-16T23:07:55Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 i added a data box 63657 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Oliver Reginald Kaizana Tambo''' (27 October 1917 – 24 April 1993) wey be a South African anti-apartheid politician and activist who dey served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) from 1967 to 1991. == Biography == === Childhood === Oliver Tambo wey them born on 27 October 1917 in the village of Nkantolo in Bizana; eastern Pondoland wey them dey calledin Eastern Cape for now. Most of the people wey them found in the village wey be farmers. His Papa, Mzimeni Tambo, dey be a son of a farmer and an assistant salesperson wey found at a local trading store. Mzimeni dey get four wives and ten children, all of whom wey school proper. Oliver's mother, Mzimeni's wey be third wife, was called Julia. 8t1tz7o9duehkwtld2bs8aomnsb34qj 63668 63657 2025-06-16T23:21:17Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1292531930|Oliver Tambo]]" 63668 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Oliver Reginald Kaizana Tambo''' (27 October 1917 – 24 April 1993) wey be a South African anti-apartheid politician and activist who dey served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) from 1967 to 1991. == Biography == === Childhood === Oliver Tambo wey them born on 27 October 1917 in the village of Nkantolo in Bizana; eastern Pondoland wey them dey calledin Eastern Cape for now. Most of the people wey them found in the village wey be farmers. His Papa, Mzimeni Tambo, dey be a son of a farmer and an assistant salesperson wey found at a local trading store. Mzimeni dey get four wives and ten children, all of whom wey school proper. Oliver's mother, Mzimeni's wey be third wife, was called Julia. === Education === Tambo wey dey graduated high school in 1938 as one of de top students. After this, Tambo wey dem admitted to de [[University of Fort Hare]] but in 1940 he, along with several others including [[Nelson Mandela]], wey expelled for participating in a student strike. In 1942, Tambo returned dey go to his former high school in Johannesburg to teach science and mathematics. === Youth League === In 1944, along with [[Nelson Mandela]], and Walter Sisulu, Tambo founded de ANC Youth League, with Tambo becoming de first National Secretary and a member of de National Executive in 1948. Di Youth League propose say dem change di way dem dey fight against apartheid. Before dis, ANC dey use petition, demonstration and all dat to fight for dem rights. But di Youth League say make dem try some new ting like boycott, disobeying di law, strike and no cooperate with di oppressors. Dem call dis new plan 'Program of Action. [[File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T0515-008,_Berlin,_Besuch_ANC-Delegation,_Axen,_Tambo.jpg|thumb|Tambo being greeted on arrival in East Germany (1978)]] For 1955, Tambo become Secretary-general of ANC after Sisulu get ban by South African government under di Suppression of Communism Act. For 1958, dem elect am as Deputy President of ANC, but den for 1959, government come serve am banning order say e no fit do some tings for five years. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''<nowiki><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></nowiki>''&#x5D;</sup> === Exile to London === In response, Tambo wey them sent abroad by the ANC to gather support opposition to apartheid on 21 March 1960. He dey settled with him family in Muswell Hill, north London, where he lived until 1990. His exile took a toll on him not seeing his wife and three children, but his wife Adelaide wey supported de ANC at home by taking in ANC members arriving from de [[United Kingdom|UK]]. eajwyud3w71hq5bidi22b8povoo9m94 63669 63668 2025-06-16T23:23:02Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 63669 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Oliver Reginald Kaizana Tambo''' (27 October 1917 – 24 April 1993) wey be a South African anti-apartheid politician and activist who dey served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) from 1967 to 1991. == Biography == === Childhood === Oliver Tambo wey them born on 27 October 1917 in the village of Nkantolo in Bizana; eastern Pondoland wey them dey calledin Eastern Cape for now. Most of the people wey them found in the village wey be farmers. His Papa, Mzimeni Tambo, dey be a son of a farmer and an assistant salesperson wey found at a local trading store. Mzimeni dey get four wives and ten children, all of whom wey school proper. Oliver's mother, Mzimeni's wey be third wife, was called Julia. === Education === Tambo wey dey graduated high school in 1938 as one of de top students. After this, Tambo wey dem admitted to de [[University of Fort Hare]] but in 1940 he, along with several others including [[Nelson Mandela]], wey expelled for participating in a student strike. In 1942, Tambo returned dey go to his former high school in Johannesburg to teach science and mathematics. === Youth League === In 1944, along with [[Nelson Mandela]], and Walter Sisulu, Tambo founded de ANC Youth League, with Tambo becoming de first National Secretary and a member of de National Executive in 1948. Di Youth League propose say dem change di way dem dey fight against apartheid. Before dis, ANC dey use petition, demonstration and all dat to fight for dem rights. But di Youth League say make dem try some new ting like boycott, disobeying di law, strike and no cooperate with di oppressors. Dem call dis new plan 'Program of Action. [[File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T0515-008,_Berlin,_Besuch_ANC-Delegation,_Axen,_Tambo.jpg|thumb|Tambo being greeted on arrival in East Germany (1978)]] For 1955, Tambo become Secretary-general of ANC after Sisulu get ban by South African government under di Suppression of Communism Act. For 1958, dem elect am as Deputy President of ANC, but den for 1959, government come serve am banning order say e no fit do some tings for five years. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''<nowiki><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></nowiki>''&#x5D;</sup> === Exile to London === In response, Tambo wey them sent abroad by the ANC to gather support opposition to apartheid on 21 March 1960. He dey settled with him family in Muswell Hill, north London, where he lived until 1990. His exile took a toll on him not seeing his wife and three children, but his wife Adelaide wey supported de ANC at home by taking in ANC members arriving from de [[United Kingdom|UK]]. ttotpfc1fbkqos7awc55scwh2llaubb 14 17369 63679 2025-06-16T23:36:24Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63679 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17370 63680 2025-06-16T23:36:46Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63680 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17371 63681 2025-06-16T23:37:12Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63681 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17372 63682 2025-06-16T23:37:27Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63682 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17373 63684 2025-06-16T23:38:01Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63684 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 17374 63687 2025-06-16T23:44:13Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1294714803|Bunso Eco Park]]" 63687 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bonsu Eco Park''', formerly '''Bunso Arboretum''', e dey locate in de [[Eastern Region (Ghana)|Eastern Region]] of Ghana, south of de town of Bunso. them dey founded it in 1935 by two British men wey them later developed into a recreational park by Ghanaians in collaboration with de Ministry of Tourism Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-20|title=People&Places: The ‘hidden’ presidential seat in the heart of a magical garden – Bunso Eco Park’s story|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/People-Places-The-hidden-presidential-seat-in-the-heart-of-a-magical-garden-Bunso-Eco-Park-s-story-1266067|access-date=2023-04-04|website=[[GhanaWeb]]|language=en}}</ref> The site dey keep over 600 species of trees wey them dey use for various medicinal purposes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Visit Ghana - Bunso Eco Park (Arboretum)|url=https://visitghana.com/attractions/bunso-arboretum/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=Visit Ghana|language=en-US}}</ref> De Bunso Eco Park is a dense forest endowed with many medicinal plants, herbs dey and wild animals. De arboretum has within its enclave over 600 species of plants, 105 species of birds, 57 species of snakes, 300 species of butterflies, assorted fruits including; grapes, passion and de star fruit.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Badu-Agyei|first=Bertha|last2=Tamakloe|first2=Millicent|date=April 10, 2021|title=Bunso Arboretum: an exceptional tourist site in the Eastern Region {{!}} News Ghana|url=https://newsghana.com.gh/bunso-arboretum-an-exceptional-tourist-site-in-the-eastern-region/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=[[Ghana News Agency]]|language=en-US}}</ref> == Location == De place dey situated 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) off de Bunso junction on de [[Accra]]–[[Kumasi]] highway. kjuol4l6aas8yziyeefcve80walajcz 63688 63687 2025-06-16T23:46:13Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 63688 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Bonsu Eco Park''', formerly '''Bunso Arboretum''', e dey locate in de [[Eastern Region (Ghana)|Eastern Region]] of Ghana, south of de town of Bunso. them dey founded it in 1935 by two British men wey them later developed into a recreational park by Ghanaians in collaboration with de Ministry of Tourism Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-20|title=People&Places: The ‘hidden’ presidential seat in the heart of a magical garden – Bunso Eco Park’s story|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/People-Places-The-hidden-presidential-seat-in-the-heart-of-a-magical-garden-Bunso-Eco-Park-s-story-1266067|access-date=2023-04-04|website=[[GhanaWeb]]|language=en}}</ref> The site dey keep over 600 species of trees wey them dey use for various medicinal purposes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Visit Ghana - Bunso Eco Park (Arboretum)|url=https://visitghana.com/attractions/bunso-arboretum/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=Visit Ghana|language=en-US}}</ref> De Bunso Eco Park is a dense forest endowed with many medicinal plants, herbs dey and wild animals. De arboretum has within its enclave over 600 species of plants, 105 species of birds, 57 species of snakes, 300 species of butterflies, assorted fruits including; grapes, passion and de star fruit.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Badu-Agyei|first=Bertha|last2=Tamakloe|first2=Millicent|date=April 10, 2021|title=Bunso Arboretum: an exceptional tourist site in the Eastern Region {{!}} News Ghana|url=https://newsghana.com.gh/bunso-arboretum-an-exceptional-tourist-site-in-the-eastern-region/|access-date=2023-04-04|website=[[Ghana News Agency]]|language=en-US}}</ref> == Location == De place dey situated 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) off de Bunso junction on de [[Accra]]–[[Kumasi]] highway. lshd08kf6wqs2z99yhpdz43t061w3bg 0 17375 63689 2025-06-16T23:46:54Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 HISTROY 63689 wikitext text/x-wiki African-American Muslims, wey people also dey call Black Muslims, be small group of religious people among African-Americans.<ref name=":0">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African-American_Muslims</ref> Dem make over 20% of all the Muslims wey dey America. Dem be one of the big Muslim groups for the U.S., 'cause no one tribe or ethnic group be majority for Muslims there.<ref name=":0" /> Most of dem be Sunni Muslims, but small number dey wey be Shia and some dey inside Nation of Islam too. The Muslim religion get link to African-American history from time way back, even from Revolutionary and Antebellum times. == HISTORT == '''Long time ago, dem say like 30% of di slaves wey dem carry from West and Central Africa go America be Muslims.''' Dem Muslims people sabi book pass plenty other slaves, so dem dey give dem some oga positions for work. But most of dem later force turn Christians for di slavery time. Some people like Omar ibn Said still dey practice Islam all e life for America. For di 1900s inside, some black Americans begin turn Muslims, mostly from black power groups wey dey follow Islamic style like di ''Moorish Science Temple of America'' (wey start 1913), and ''Nation of Islam'' (wey start for 1930s), wey by 1963, get like 20,000 followers. Big names for there be '''Malcolm X''' and '''Muhammad Ali'''. Ahmadiyya Muslims too get converts for di 1920s and 1930s. Malcolm X be di first wey make black Americans start move go mainstream Islam after e comot Nation of Islam and go Mecca for pilgrimage. For 1975, '''Warith Deen Mohammed''', son of Elijah Muhammad, come take over Nation of Islam and move most people go Sunni Islam. But some people no gree follow, so '''Louis Farrakhan''' bring back Nation of Islam for 1978 with di old teachings of Wallace Fard Muhammad. '''Early American Muslims – Bilali Muhammad''' Bilali Muhammad be one West African Muslim wey dem capture carry go plantation for Sapelo Island, Georgia. E born for Guinea, between 1760–1779, from educated Muslim family. E sabi Islam well well, e fit read and write, and even get more book sense than e slave masters. Bilali be leader and imam for di Muslim slaves dem. E marry plenty wives and get many pikin. Di big thing wey people sabi am for be say e write Arabic book wey talk about Islam law, how to do ablution (wash body before prayer), morning prayers, and call to prayer. For 1940s inside, dem carry di book go Nigeria make Hausa scholars translate am. Today, di book be one of di sacred Islamic paper for African-American Muslims. Plus e get plenty descendants wey still dey. 799fotr6ss0kn812nsb0k33ejxxmnt1 63694 63689 2025-06-16T23:56:20Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 early American muslims 63694 wikitext text/x-wiki African-American Muslims, wey people also dey call Black Muslims, be small group of religious people among African-Americans.<ref name=":0">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African-American_Muslims</ref> Dem make over 20% of all the Muslims wey dey America. Dem be one of the big Muslim groups for the U.S., 'cause no one tribe or ethnic group be majority for Muslims there.<ref name=":0" /> Most of dem be Sunni Muslims, but small number dey wey be Shia and some dey inside Nation of Islam too. The Muslim religion get link to African-American history from time way back, even from Revolutionary and Antebellum times. == HISTORT == '''Long time ago, dem say like 30% of di slaves wey dem carry from West and Central Africa go America be Muslims.''' Dem Muslims people sabi book pass plenty other slaves, so dem dey give dem some oga positions for work. But most of dem later force turn Christians for di slavery time. Some people like Omar ibn Said still dey practice Islam all e life for America. For di 1900s inside, some black Americans begin turn Muslims, mostly from black power groups wey dey follow Islamic style like di ''Moorish Science Temple of America'' (wey start 1913), and ''Nation of Islam'' (wey start for 1930s), wey by 1963, get like 20,000 followers. Big names for there be '''Malcolm X''' and '''Muhammad Ali'''. Ahmadiyya Muslims too get converts for di 1920s and 1930s. Malcolm X be di first wey make black Americans start move go mainstream Islam after e comot Nation of Islam and go Mecca for pilgrimage. For 1975, '''Warith Deen Mohammed''', son of Elijah Muhammad, come take over Nation of Islam and move most people go Sunni Islam. But some people no gree follow, so '''Louis Farrakhan''' bring back Nation of Islam for 1978 with di old teachings of Wallace Fard Muhammad. '''Early American Muslims – Bilali Muhammad''' Bilali Muhammad be one West African Muslim wey dem capture carry go plantation for Sapelo Island, Georgia. E born for Guinea, between 1760–1779, from educated Muslim family. E sabi Islam well well, e fit read and write, and even get more book sense than e slave masters. Bilali be leader and imam for di Muslim slaves dem. E marry plenty wives and get many pikin. Di big thing wey people sabi am for be say e write Arabic book wey talk about Islam law, how to do ablution (wash body before prayer), morning prayers, and call to prayer. For 1940s inside, dem carry di book go Nigeria make Hausa scholars translate am. Today, di book be one of di sacred Islamic paper for African-American Muslims. Plus e get plenty descendants wey still dey. <references /> == Early American Muslims == '''Bilali Muhammad''' Bilali Muhammad be one West African Muslim wey dem carry go America as slave. E dey work for one plantation for '''Sapelo Island''' inside '''Georgia'''. Dem born am for '''Timbo, Guinea''' between 1760 and 1779, e come from big educated Muslim family. E know Islam well well, e fit read and write, and e book sense pass e slave masters.<ref>Diouf, Sylviane (2014). ''Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in America''. New York University Press. ISBN <bdi>978-1479847112</bdi>.</ref> Bilali be '''imam''' and leader for di Muslim slaves wey dey the plantation. E get many wives plus plenty children. People know am pass because of one Arabic book wey e write with e own hand. Di book dey talk about '''West African Islamic law (fiqh)''' — how Muslims for there dey practice their religion. Inside the book, e write how to wash body before prayer ('''ablution'''), how to pray in di morning, and how dem dey call people come pray ('''call to prayer'''). For di 1940s inside, dem carry di book go '''Nigeria''', make '''Hausa scholars''' help translate am. Today, di book be one of di most sacred Islamic paper for African-American Muslims. Bilali get plenty descendants wey still dey live till today. pmy5zuwg4vdwfywkgbqsjqkjpwk2hka 0 17376 63696 2025-06-17T00:12:52Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1290799989|Macky Sall]]" 63696 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Macky Sall''' (   , Wolof: Maki Sàll, Pulaar: 𞤃𞤢𞤳𞤭 𞤅𞤢𞤤‎, romanized: Maki Sal; born 11 December 1961) is a Senegalese politician who dey served as de fourth president of Senegal from de year 2012 to 2024. He previously served as de eighth prime minister from 2004 to 2007, under President Abdoulaye Wade and president of the National Assembly from 2007 to 2008. Sall dey served as de Mayor of Fatick from 2002 to 2008 and he dey held that post again from 2009 to 2012. He be a long-time member for de Senegalese Democratic Party (PDS). Afta e clash with Wade, dem remove am from im position as President of di National Assembly for November 2008. E go on found im own party wey e call Alliance for di Republic (APR) and join di opposition. E finish second for di first round of di 2012 presidential election, but e get support from other opposition candidates and e win ova Wade for di second round wey happen on 25 March 2012E be di first president wey dem born after Senegal get independence [[France]]. [[Category:Living people]] 3ao33qjgdppeax4d3prupmtlkfxqspv 63697 63696 2025-06-17T00:15:14Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 i added a data box 63697 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Macky Sall''' (   , Wolof: Maki Sàll, Pulaar: 𞤃𞤢𞤳𞤭 𞤅𞤢𞤤‎, romanized: Maki Sal; born 11 December 1961) is a Senegalese politician who dey served as de fourth president of Senegal from de year 2012 to 2024. He previously served as de eighth prime minister from 2004 to 2007, under President Abdoulaye Wade and president of the National Assembly from 2007 to 2008. Sall dey served as de Mayor of Fatick from 2002 to 2008 and he dey held that post again from 2009 to 2012. He be a long-time member for de Senegalese Democratic Party (PDS). Afta e clash with Wade, dem remove am from im position as President of di National Assembly for November 2008. E go on found im own party wey e call Alliance for di Republic (APR) and join di opposition. E finish second for di first round of di 2012 presidential election, but e get support from other opposition candidates and e win ova Wade for di second round wey happen on 25 March 2012E be di first president wey dem born after Senegal get independence [[France]]. [[Category:Living people]] owu4cf0drbk7idre1l5bur6mp5wn8vl 63790 63697 2025-06-17T08:46:48Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 63790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Macky Sall''' (   , Wolof: Maki Sàll, Pulaar: 𞤃𞤢𞤳𞤭 𞤅𞤢𞤤‎, romanized: Maki Sal; born 11 December 1961) is a Senegalese politician who dey served as de fourth president of Senegal from de year 2012 to 2024. He previously served as de eighth prime minister from 2004 to 2007, under President Abdoulaye Wade and president of the National Assembly from 2007 to 2008. Sall dey served as de Mayor of Fatick from 2002 to 2008 and he dey held that post again from 2009 to 2012. He be a long-time member for de Senegalese Democratic Party (PDS). Afta e clash with Wade, dem remove am from im position as President of di National Assembly for November 2008. E go on found im own party wey e call Alliance for di Republic (APR) and join di opposition. E finish second for di first round of di 2012 presidential election, but e get support from other opposition candidates and e win ova Wade for di second round wey happen on 25 March 2012E be di first president wey dem born after Senegal get independence [[France]]. [[Category:Living people]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==External links== * {{Commons-inline}} *{{Wikiquote-inline}} {{s-start}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=Doudou Ngom}} {{s-ttl|title=Mayor of [[Fatick]]|years=2002–2008}} {{s-aft|after=Doudou Ngom}} |- {{s-bef|before=Doudou Ngom}} {{s-ttl|title=Mayor of Fatick|years=2009–2012}} {{s-aft|after=Famara Sarr}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Idrissa Seck]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of Senegal]]|years=2004–2007}} {{s-aft|after={{nowrap|[[Cheikh Hadjibou Soumaré]]}}}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Pape Diop]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of presidents of the National Assembly of Senegal|President]] of the [[National Assembly of Senegal|National Assembly]]|years=2007–2008}} {{s-aft|after={{nowrap|[[Mamadou Seck (politician)|Mamadou Seck]]}}}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Abdoulaye Wade]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Presidents of Senegal|President of Senegal]]|years=2012–2024}} {{s-aft|after=[[Bassirou Diomaye Faye]]}} |- {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Idrissa Seck]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Deputy Leader of the [[Senegalese Democratic Party]]|years=2004–2008}} {{s-aft|after={{nowrap|[[Souleymane Ndéné Ndiaye]]}}}} |- {{s-new|party}} {{s-ttl|title=Leader of the [[Alliance for the Republic (Senegal)|Alliance for the Republic]]|years=2008–present}} {{s-inc}} |- {{s-dip}} {{s-bef|before=[[Felix Tshisekedi]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Chairperson of the African Union]]|years=2022–2023}} {{s-aft|after=[[Azali Assoumani]]}} {{s-end}} {{Presidents of Senegal}} {{Prime Ministers of Senegal}} {{African Union chairpersons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sall, Macky}} [[Category:1961 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:People from Fatick region]] [[Category:Presidents of Senegal]] [[Category:Prime ministers of Senegal]] [[Category:Presidents of the National Assembly (Senegal)]] [[Category:Interior ministers of Senegal]] [[Category:21st-century mayors of places in Senegal]] [[Category:Chairpersons of the African Union]] [[Category:Alliance for the Republic (Senegal) politicians]] [[Category:Senegalese Democratic Party politicians]] [[Category:Fula people]] [[Category:Senegalese Muslims]] [[Category:Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Senegal]] [[Category:Cheikh Anta Diop University alumni]] [[Category:20th-century Senegalese people]] [[Category:21st-century Senegalese politicians]] enk74p8lndadatz35tmwxfbnxk5zuii 63798 63790 2025-06-17T09:01:28Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 Created by translating the section "Post-presidency" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1296020158|Macky Sall]]" 63798 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Macky Sall''' (   , Wolof: Maki Sàll, Pulaar: 𞤃𞤢𞤳𞤭 𞤅𞤢𞤤‎, romanized: Maki Sal; born 11 December 1961) is a Senegalese politician who dey served as de fourth president of Senegal from de year 2012 to 2024. He previously served as de eighth prime minister from 2004 to 2007, under President Abdoulaye Wade and president of the National Assembly from 2007 to 2008. Sall dey served as de Mayor of Fatick from 2002 to 2008 and he dey held that post again from 2009 to 2012. He be a long-time member for de Senegalese Democratic Party (PDS). Afta e clash with Wade, dem remove am from im position as President of di National Assembly for November 2008. E go on found im own party wey e call Alliance for di Republic (APR) and join di opposition. E finish second for di first round of di 2012 presidential election, but e get support from other opposition candidates and e win ova Wade for di second round wey happen on 25 March 2012E be di first president wey dem born after Senegal get independence [[France]]. [[Category:Living people]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==External links== * {{Commons-inline}} *{{Wikiquote-inline}} {{s-start}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=Doudou Ngom}} {{s-ttl|title=Mayor of [[Fatick]]|years=2002–2008}} {{s-aft|after=Doudou Ngom}} |- {{s-bef|before=Doudou Ngom}} {{s-ttl|title=Mayor of Fatick|years=2009–2012}} {{s-aft|after=Famara Sarr}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Idrissa Seck]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of Senegal]]|years=2004–2007}} {{s-aft|after={{nowrap|[[Cheikh Hadjibou Soumaré]]}}}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Pape Diop]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of presidents of the National Assembly of Senegal|President]] of the [[National Assembly of Senegal|National Assembly]]|years=2007–2008}} {{s-aft|after={{nowrap|[[Mamadou Seck (politician)|Mamadou Seck]]}}}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Abdoulaye Wade]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Presidents of Senegal|President of Senegal]]|years=2012–2024}} {{s-aft|after=[[Bassirou Diomaye Faye]]}} |- {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Idrissa Seck]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Deputy Leader of the [[Senegalese Democratic Party]]|years=2004–2008}} {{s-aft|after={{nowrap|[[Souleymane Ndéné Ndiaye]]}}}} |- {{s-new|party}} {{s-ttl|title=Leader of the [[Alliance for the Republic (Senegal)|Alliance for the Republic]]|years=2008–present}} {{s-inc}} |- {{s-dip}} {{s-bef|before=[[Felix Tshisekedi]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Chairperson of the African Union]]|years=2022–2023}} {{s-aft|after=[[Azali Assoumani]]}} {{s-end}} {{Presidents of Senegal}} {{Prime Ministers of Senegal}} {{African Union chairpersons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sall, Macky}} [[Category:1961 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:People from Fatick region]] [[Category:Presidents of Senegal]] [[Category:Prime ministers of Senegal]] [[Category:Presidents of the National Assembly (Senegal)]] [[Category:Interior ministers of Senegal]] [[Category:21st-century mayors of places in Senegal]] [[Category:Chairpersons of the African Union]] [[Category:Alliance for the Republic (Senegal) politicians]] [[Category:Senegalese Democratic Party politicians]] [[Category:Fula people]] [[Category:Senegalese Muslims]] [[Category:Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Senegal]] [[Category:Cheikh Anta Diop University alumni]] [[Category:20th-century Senegalese people]] [[Category:21st-century Senegalese politicians]] == Post-presidency == Sall wey them named him as de leading candidate of de opposition Takku Wallu Senegal coalition in de 2024 Senegalese parliamentary election scheduled on de 17 November. In January 2025, Macky Sall dey try launched a management consulting company from Morocco, where he resides. In April 2025, a member of de parliament submitted a proposal to impeach Macky Sall in de National Assembly. Dis proposal to impeach Macky Sall for high treason dey be based on de report of de Court of Auditors, which revealed falsified figures for public debt and de budget deficit. ke96wcnf15tvsh2us5uwxx1vgh5iqbl 0 17377 63709 2025-06-17T01:20:17Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 Refugee camp 63709 wikitext text/x-wiki Refugee camp be one kind temporary place wey dem dey build for take care of people wey run comot dem country or people wey dey like refugee. Normally, e dey house people wey war or gbe gbe make dem run leave dem country. Sometimes sef, people wey na weather wahala or poverty carry dem move too dey stay for inside.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee_camp#Arrival</ref> Some camps dey wey dey big pass hundred thousand people, but by 2012 di average camp dey carry about '''11,400 people'''. Na government, UN, or international organizations like '''Red Cross''', or NGOs dey build or dey run dem camps. Some camps wey no be official, like '''Idomeni''' for Greece or '''Calais Jungle''' for France, dem refugees dey stay there but government or UN no dey give support. Mostly, refugee camps no dey plan well, e just dey build anyhow to make people fit chop, sleep and manage small small for short time. Di governments of di country dem dey for no dey like make dem build di camp like proper town, so permanent things no dey dey allowed. If war no gree stop or di people no fit go back dem country, wahala fit start because di camp no dey fit take care of everybody well again. '''UNHCR''' talk say most refugees no dey live for camp sef. By di end of 2015, about '''67% of refugees''' dey live for private house or apartment, like di many '''Syrian refugees''' wey dey Middle East. Only about '''25.4%''' of refugees dey live for organized camp. For rural area, about '''56%''' dey camp, and only small '''2%''' dey live for private house. But for town side, like '''urban area''', about '''99%''' of refugees dey stay for private house, less than '''1%''' dey stay camp. Some refugees too dey stay for different places like '''collective centre''', '''transit camp''', or self-built camp. Even though about '''74% of refugees''' dey town side, di international organizations still dey focus on building and running refugee camps. hr1z1a38mbi3jkxf1zwnc4fdq0073y8 63710 63709 2025-06-17T01:28:10Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 FACILITY 63710 wikitext text/x-wiki Refugee camp be one kind temporary place wey dem dey build for take care of people wey run comot dem country or people wey dey like refugee. Normally, e dey house people wey war or gbe gbe make dem run leave dem country. Sometimes sef, people wey na weather wahala or poverty carry dem move too dey stay for inside.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee_camp#Arrival</ref> Some camps dey wey dey big pass hundred thousand people, but by 2012 di average camp dey carry about '''11,400 people'''. Na government, UN, or international organizations like '''Red Cross''', or NGOs dey build or dey run dem camps. Some camps wey no be official, like '''Idomeni''' for Greece or '''Calais Jungle''' for France, dem refugees dey stay there but government or UN no dey give support. Mostly, refugee camps no dey plan well, e just dey build anyhow to make people fit chop, sleep and manage small small for short time. Di governments of di country dem dey for no dey like make dem build di camp like proper town, so permanent things no dey dey allowed. If war no gree stop or di people no fit go back dem country, wahala fit start because di camp no dey fit take care of everybody well again. '''UNHCR''' talk say most refugees no dey live for camp sef. By di end of 2015, about '''67% of refugees''' dey live for private house or apartment, like di many '''Syrian refugees''' wey dey Middle East. Only about '''25.4%''' of refugees dey live for organized camp. For rural area, about '''56%''' dey camp, and only small '''2%''' dey live for private house. But for town side, like '''urban area''', about '''99%''' of refugees dey stay for private house, less than '''1%''' dey stay camp. Some refugees too dey stay for different places like '''collective centre''', '''transit camp''', or self-built camp. Even though about '''74% of refugees''' dey town side, di international organizations still dey focus on building and running refugee camps. <references />'''FACILITY''' Di normal camp size wey '''UNHCR''' dey recommend be say, dem go give about '''45 square meter (480 square feet)''' per person inside di camp. Inside di camp, e get some basic things dem dey put:<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee_camp#Facilities</ref> * '''Headquarters''' wey dem dey use control di camp matter. E fit dey inside or outside di camp. * '''Sleeping place''' like tent, small hut or any building wey dem fit take materials wey dey area build. UNHCR talk say each person for get '''3.5 square meter''' for house top, and shelters for dey at least '''2 meter''' from each other. * '''Garden''' for each family land. Dem dey recommend say each person for get '''15 square meter''' land. * '''Toilet and bathroom''': Dem dey recommend say one bathroom for 50 people and one toilet for 20 people. E no for dey more than '''50 meter''' from where di people dey sleep, but e no for dey closer than '''6 meter''' too. Dem dey also separate toilet for men and women. * '''Water fetching point''': E fit be tank wey truck go pour water or pipe stand wey dey connect to borehole. Each person suppose dey get '''20 liters of water per day''', and one tap stand fit serve 80 people. E no for dey more than '''200 meter''' from di house. * '''Hospital and clinic''': One clinic for '''20,000 people''', and one big hospital for every '''200,000 people'''. * '''Food centre''': One food sharing centre for '''5,000 people''' and one special food feeding centre for '''20,000 people'''. * '''Radio or communication''': Some camps get dem own small radio station. * '''Security''': Police and security go dey to stop robbery and fight. E fit dey inside or outside di camp. * '''School and training place''': Dem dey recommend one school for '''5,000 people'''. * For example for one camp for '''1984''', refugees sef set up dem own '''market''' wey dem dey sell food, medicine and things from outside. * '''Market''': Dem dey recommend one market for every '''20,000 people'''. * Sometimes, some government no dey like make dem build school or market, because dem no want make di refugees settle for long. * Other things camps dey get: ** '''Graveyard''' or place for cremation. ** '''Dustbin''': One '''100 liter''' dustbin for every 50 people and rubbish pit for every 500 people. ** '''Reception center''': Place wey refugees first go land and register before dem go enter di main camp. E dey usually near di border. ** '''Church, Mosque or religious place'''. Dem dey use '''satellite''' and '''GIS system''' to check how di camp dey change and manage di place well well. 3a2rntdibzymqyz08326jxocud6tpg0 63711 63710 2025-06-17T01:34:45Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 Add mental heath 63711 wikitext text/x-wiki Refugee camp be one kind temporary place wey dem dey build for take care of people wey run comot dem country or people wey dey like refugee. Normally, e dey house people wey war or gbe gbe make dem run leave dem country. Sometimes sef, people wey na weather wahala or poverty carry dem move too dey stay for inside.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee_camp#Arrival</ref> Some camps dey wey dey big pass hundred thousand people, but by 2012 di average camp dey carry about '''11,400 people'''. Na government, UN, or international organizations like '''Red Cross''', or NGOs dey build or dey run dem camps. Some camps wey no be official, like '''Idomeni''' for Greece or '''Calais Jungle''' for France, dem refugees dey stay there but government or UN no dey give support. Mostly, refugee camps no dey plan well, e just dey build anyhow to make people fit chop, sleep and manage small small for short time. Di governments of di country dem dey for no dey like make dem build di camp like proper town, so permanent things no dey dey allowed. If war no gree stop or di people no fit go back dem country, wahala fit start because di camp no dey fit take care of everybody well again. '''UNHCR''' talk say most refugees no dey live for camp sef. By di end of 2015, about '''67% of refugees''' dey live for private house or apartment, like di many '''Syrian refugees''' wey dey Middle East. Only about '''25.4%''' of refugees dey live for organized camp. For rural area, about '''56%''' dey camp, and only small '''2%''' dey live for private house. But for town side, like '''urban area''', about '''99%''' of refugees dey stay for private house, less than '''1%''' dey stay camp. Some refugees too dey stay for different places like '''collective centre''', '''transit camp''', or self-built camp. Even though about '''74% of refugees''' dey town side, di international organizations still dey focus on building and running refugee camps. <references />'''FACILITY''' Di normal camp size wey '''UNHCR''' dey recommend be say, dem go give about '''45 square meter (480 square feet)''' per person inside di camp. Inside di camp, e get some basic things dem dey put:<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee_camp#Facilities</ref> * '''Headquarters''' wey dem dey use control di camp matter. E fit dey inside or outside di camp. * '''Sleeping place''' like tent, small hut or any building wey dem fit take materials wey dey area build. UNHCR talk say each person for get '''3.5 square meter''' for house top, and shelters for dey at least '''2 meter''' from each other. * '''Garden''' for each family land. Dem dey recommend say each person for get '''15 square meter''' land. * '''Toilet and bathroom''': Dem dey recommend say one bathroom for 50 people and one toilet for 20 people. E no for dey more than '''50 meter''' from where di people dey sleep, but e no for dey closer than '''6 meter''' too. Dem dey also separate toilet for men and women. * '''Water fetching point''': E fit be tank wey truck go pour water or pipe stand wey dey connect to borehole. Each person suppose dey get '''20 liters of water per day''', and one tap stand fit serve 80 people. E no for dey more than '''200 meter''' from di house. * '''Hospital and clinic''': One clinic for '''20,000 people''', and one big hospital for every '''200,000 people'''. * '''Food centre''': One food sharing centre for '''5,000 people''' and one special food feeding centre for '''20,000 people'''. * '''Radio or communication''': Some camps get dem own small radio station. * '''Security''': Police and security go dey to stop robbery and fight. E fit dey inside or outside di camp. * '''School and training place''': Dem dey recommend one school for '''5,000 people'''. * For example for one camp for '''1984''', refugees sef set up dem own '''market''' wey dem dey sell food, medicine and things from outside. * '''Market''': Dem dey recommend one market for every '''20,000 people'''. * Sometimes, some government no dey like make dem build school or market, because dem no want make di refugees settle for long. * Other things camps dey get: ** '''Graveyard''' or place for cremation. ** '''Dustbin''': One '''100 liter''' dustbin for every 50 people and rubbish pit for every 500 people. ** '''Reception center''': Place wey refugees first go land and register before dem go enter di main camp. E dey usually near di border. ** '''Church, Mosque or religious place'''. Dem dey use '''satellite''' and '''GIS system''' to check how di camp dey change and manage di place well well. <references /> == MENTAL HEATH == Refugee people dey face plenty wahala wey dey affect dem head (mental health). Di kind gbege dem face for dem country and for road when dem dey run go another place dey cause plenty mental wahala like PTSD (wahala wey dey happen after person see big violence), depression from disaster, and other stress wey come join from di refugee camp life.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee_camp#Mental_health</ref> Dem dey think about di country wey dem run from, dem dey miss dem family, and dem dey feel like dem no get control for dem life again. All this one dey worry dem head. Plus di condition inside camp dey make e worse — wahala like no enough food, bad toilets, violence, and people no sure how tomorrow go be. Women and girls dey fear to waka alone for camp, especially for night, because bad people fit do trafficking or rape dem. For Syrian refugees, di common mental wahala na depression, long-time sadness, PTSD, and anxiety (fear wey dey disturb person mind). But how people dey see mental wahala dey depend on dem culture and religion, so how dem dey talk about or show di wahala dey different. People wey dem don torture before sef dey show di wahala for dem body (like body pain wey be from head wahala). Because refugee camp life get im own wahala, some new ways don dey wey people dey use help dem. For example, for Calais refugee camp, one project come try create youth group and community place make people no dey face di wahala alone. Dem dey encourage people make dem talk small small about di problems and di small small ways dem dey take cope. Dem still dey do activities wey come from di refugees' own culture make dem fit feel proud and strong again. For some place like Afghan refugee camp for Pakistan, di Pakistani people understand say Afghan people value dignity and honour well well. So dem arrange di camp so say people from di same tribe or language dey live together, to make dem feel better and more at home. lv5v5nq23o8o2rkeusvjj8spzz59utp 0 17378 63714 2025-06-17T03:19:40Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1233236656|Osvaldo Vieira]]" 63714 wikitext text/x-wiki Na '''Osvaldo Máximo Vieira''' (1938 – 31 March 1974) be a Bissau-Guinean revolutionary den prominent military commander during de Guinea-Bissau War of Independence. Na he be de cousin of João Bernardo Vieira, who will later serve two separate terms as president. 1lwqnqli1cncvw6gg2itodsf73505lc 63715 63714 2025-06-17T03:22:35Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63715 wikitext text/x-wiki Na '''Osvaldo Máximo Vieira''' (1938 – 31 March 1974) be a Bissau-Guinean revolutionary den prominent military commander during de Guinea-Bissau War of Independence. Na he be de cousin of João Bernardo Vieira, who will later serve two separate terms as president. Vieira was one of many early dey recruit from de so-called "revolutionary petty bourgeoisie", a group which Amílcar Cabral entrusted plus instigating de war of independence. Ein father dey work at de ''Sociedade Comercial Ultramarina'', while ein grandfather dey work insyd de postal service, owned land, den dey consider a "small intellectual". 4dikl6ydyvugysmxokb41dw0n1f9x0y 63716 63715 2025-06-17T03:24:05Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63716 wikitext text/x-wiki Na '''Osvaldo Máximo Vieira''' (1938 – 31 March 1974) be a Bissau-Guinean revolutionary den prominent military commander during de Guinea-Bissau War of Independence. Na he be de cousin of João Bernardo Vieira, who will later serve two separate terms as president. Vieira was one of many early dey recruit from de so-called "revolutionary petty bourgeoisie", a group which Amílcar Cabral entrusted plus instigating de war of independence. Ein father dey work at de ''Sociedade Comercial Ultramarina'', while ein grandfather dey work insyd de postal service, owned land, den dey consider a "small intellectual". Before ein revolutionary career, Vieira dey work as a pharmacy assistant to Sofia Pomba Guerra, a white Portuguese feminist who be active insyd de burgeoning independence movements of Guinea-Bissau den Mozambique. Insyd 1961, he along plus nine oda young PAIGC fighters, trained at de Army Command College of de Chinese People ein Liberation Army insyd Nanjing, China. 4ij1wewumv12b50f9dxs7u7hc6710vi 63717 63716 2025-06-17T03:24:44Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63717 wikitext text/x-wiki Na '''Osvaldo Máximo Vieira''' (1938 – 31 March 1974) be a Bissau-Guinean revolutionary den prominent military commander during de Guinea-Bissau War of Independence. Na he be de cousin of João Bernardo Vieira, who will later serve two separate terms as president. Vieira was one of many early dey recruit from de so-called "revolutionary petty bourgeoisie", a group which Amílcar Cabral entrusted plus instigating de war of independence. Ein father dey work at de ''Sociedade Comercial Ultramarina'', while ein grandfather dey work insyd de postal service, owned land, den dey consider a "small intellectual". Before ein revolutionary career, Vieira dey work as a pharmacy assistant to Sofia Pomba Guerra, a white Portuguese feminist who be active insyd de burgeoning independence movements of Guinea-Bissau den Mozambique. Insyd 1961, he along plus nine oda young PAIGC fighters, trained at de Army Command College of de Chinese People ein Liberation Army insyd Nanjing, China. De Osvaldo Vieira International Airport insyd Bissau be named insyd ein honour. f1dbrl7cs2bd74rwjlc1tpl5hhy1w6g 63718 63717 2025-06-17T03:25:08Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63718 wikitext text/x-wiki Na '''Osvaldo Máximo Vieira''' (1938 – 31 March 1974) be a Bissau-Guinean revolutionary den prominent military commander during de Guinea-Bissau War of Independence. Na he be de cousin of João Bernardo Vieira, who will later serve two separate terms as president. Vieira was one of many early dey recruit from de so-called "revolutionary petty bourgeoisie", a group which Amílcar Cabral entrusted plus instigating de war of independence. Ein father dey work at de ''Sociedade Comercial Ultramarina'', while ein grandfather dey work insyd de postal service, owned land, den dey consider a "small intellectual". Before ein revolutionary career, Vieira dey work as a pharmacy assistant to Sofia Pomba Guerra, a white Portuguese feminist who be active insyd de burgeoning independence movements of Guinea-Bissau den Mozambique. Insyd 1961, he along plus nine oda young PAIGC fighters, trained at de Army Command College of de Chinese People ein Liberation Army insyd Nanjing, China. De Osvaldo Vieira International Airport insyd Bissau be named insyd ein honour. == References == smlyj5purci75gj635ek95y9yevhcnb 0 17379 63719 2025-06-17T03:30:31Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1188339803|Philippe Ouédraogo (politician)]]" 63719 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Philippe Ouédraogo''' (born 15 July 1942) be a Burkinabé politician den de leader of de African Independence Party (PAI). He be born insyd Diapaga, Tapoa Province. Na Ouédraogo be Minister of Equipment den Telecommunication insyd de first government of Thomas Sankara, from 1983 to 1984. He then represented de Patriotic League for Development (''Ligue patriotique pour le développement'', LIPAD), which be de mass front of PAI. Ouédraogo continued to play an important role even after de break between LIPAD den Sankara, den be named chief engineer of mining. Running as de Party for Democracy and Socialism (de electoral party of the PAI of Ouédraogo) candidate insyd de 13 November 2005 presidential election, Ouédraogo placed fourth out of 13 candidates, dey receive 2.28% of de vote. [[Category:Living people]] 73kbtf69rdp4fgpx8monbyw78u4jiue 63720 63719 2025-06-17T03:34:27Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63720 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Philippe Ouédraogo''' (born 15 July 1942) be a Burkinabé politician den de leader of de African Independence Party (PAI). He be born insyd Diapaga, Tapoa Province. Na Ouédraogo be Minister of Equipment den Telecommunication insyd de first government of Thomas Sankara, from 1983 to 1984. He then represented de Patriotic League for Development (''Ligue patriotique pour le développement'', LIPAD), which be de mass front of PAI. Ouédraogo continued to play an important role even after de break between LIPAD den Sankara, den be named chief engineer of mining. Running as de Party for Democracy and Socialism (de electoral party of the PAI of Ouédraogo) candidate insyd de 13 November 2005 presidential election, Ouédraogo placed fourth out of 13 candidates, dey receive 2.28% of de vote. == References == [[Category:Living people]] c5h8rsf9i1s91gzzbdx78zn5yxetbi1 0 17380 63721 2025-06-17T03:38:41Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295034144|Andrée Blouin]]" 63721 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrée Madeleine Blouin''' (16 December 1921 – 9 April 1986) be a political activist, human rights advocate, den writer from de Central African Republic. dsj27n8ugisshdgn6d2kxdp0p9wsxe4 63722 63721 2025-06-17T03:45:51Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63722 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrée Madeleine Blouin''' (16 December 1921 – 9 April 1986) be a political activist, human rights advocate, den writer from de Central African Republic. == Early life == De daughter of Josephine Wouassimba, a fourteen-year-old Banziri girl, den Pierre Gerbillat, a forty-year-old French colonial businessman, Andrée Blouin be born insyd Bessou, a village insyd Oubangui-Chari (later the Central African Republic). Dem take Andrée at three years of age from ein mommie by ein father den ein new wife Henriette Poussart, den placed insyd de Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny orphanage for girls of mixed race, insyd Brazzaville, insyd de French Congo, where she endured neglect den abuse. Dem create dis orphanage to cover up evidence of Europeans ein "libertine ways" (wey include de crime of outright rape) den to "protect partly white children from living insyd supposedly primitive African conditions." exw7f1t1slmu5ij4l7anqn80x8dmcn7 63723 63722 2025-06-17T03:51:52Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63723 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrée Madeleine Blouin''' (16 December 1921 – 9 April 1986) be a political activist, human rights advocate, den writer from de Central African Republic. == Early life == De daughter of Josephine Wouassimba, a fourteen-year-old Banziri girl, den Pierre Gerbillat, a forty-year-old French colonial businessman, Andrée Blouin be born insyd Bessou, a village insyd Oubangui-Chari (later the Central African Republic). Dem take Andrée at three years of age from ein mommie by ein father den ein new wife Henriette Poussart, den placed insyd de Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny orphanage for girls of mixed race, insyd Brazzaville, insyd de French Congo, where she endured neglect den abuse. Dem create dis orphanage to cover up evidence of Europeans ein "libertine ways" (wey include de crime of outright rape) den to "protect partly white children from living insyd supposedly primitive African conditions." At age 15, de nuns tried to pressure ein into an arranged marriage. She dey spend 14 years insyd de orphanage before she den two oda girls ran away insyd 1938. As she dey grow older, she participate insyd many smaller forms of rebellions plus ein friends. She will persist insyd attending white-only cinemas until they tolerate ein presence. Insyd stores, she will ask for articles insyd French, but de shopkeepers will purposefully "answer insyd Lingala or Kikongo to humiliate ein." Dis was due to ein having French citizenship, but having no real "right" to use de language. She sana will ask for butter, which be "unthinkable for an African to eat," but she later stated dat she "dey to begin somewhere." == Personal life == After she escape from de orphanage, Andrée move plus ein mommie to Brazzaville den begin work as a seamstress. While riding on a riverboat insyd de Congo River, Andrée meet a Belgian aristocrat named Roger Serruys. Soon afterwards, she move insyd plus Serruys to Banningville, where he be appointed de new director of de Belgian Kasai Company. Frustrated by ein insistence dat demma relationship be kept a secret, Andrée dey return home to Brazzaville three months pregnant. She give birth to ein daughter Rita on ein 19th birthday, 16 December 1940. my0rtq8t7fj90zdq0tlj6je9oaxeoxf 63724 63723 2025-06-17T03:55:05Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Personal life */ Improve article 63724 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrée Madeleine Blouin''' (16 December 1921 – 9 April 1986) be a political activist, human rights advocate, den writer from de Central African Republic. == Early life == De daughter of Josephine Wouassimba, a fourteen-year-old Banziri girl, den Pierre Gerbillat, a forty-year-old French colonial businessman, Andrée Blouin be born insyd Bessou, a village insyd Oubangui-Chari (later the Central African Republic). Dem take Andrée at three years of age from ein mommie by ein father den ein new wife Henriette Poussart, den placed insyd de Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny orphanage for girls of mixed race, insyd Brazzaville, insyd de French Congo, where she endured neglect den abuse. Dem create dis orphanage to cover up evidence of Europeans ein "libertine ways" (wey include de crime of outright rape) den to "protect partly white children from living insyd supposedly primitive African conditions." At age 15, de nuns tried to pressure ein into an arranged marriage. She dey spend 14 years insyd de orphanage before she den two oda girls ran away insyd 1938. As she dey grow older, she participate insyd many smaller forms of rebellions plus ein friends. She will persist insyd attending white-only cinemas until they tolerate ein presence. Insyd stores, she will ask for articles insyd French, but de shopkeepers will purposefully "answer insyd Lingala or Kikongo to humiliate ein." Dis was due to ein having French citizenship, but having no real "right" to use de language. She sana will ask for butter, which be "unthinkable for an African to eat," but she later stated dat she "dey to begin somewhere." == Personal life == After she escape from de orphanage, Andrée move plus ein mommie to Brazzaville den begin work as a seamstress. While riding on a riverboat insyd de Congo River, Andrée meet a Belgian aristocrat named Roger Serruys. Soon afterwards, she move insyd plus Serruys to Banningville, where he be appointed de new director of de Belgian Kasai Company. Frustrated by ein insistence dat demma relationship be kept a secret, Andrée dey return home to Brazzaville three months pregnant. She give birth to ein daughter Rita on ein 19th birthday, 16 December 1940. Andrée meet a local Frenchman named Charles Greutz, den they welcome a son René on ein 21st birthday, 16 December 1942. At two years of age, René fall ill plus malaria but dey refuse de lifesaving quinine medication insyd local hospitals because "de French colonial administration insisted" dat na e be for "Europeans only." Blouin "pleaded" plus de mayor to make an exception but be refused, den before long he die from complications related to de disease. Tramautized by de experience, Andrée decide dat Rita should not grow up insyd colonial Africa, den after legally marrying Greutz, she den ein daughter relocate to France insyd 1946. Greutz stay behind insyd Bangui to work, while Andrée den Rita reside plus de Greutz family insyd de town of Gebviller insyd Alsace. 2jbiedj48n7ss5tp3qc4koskawzhh2o 63725 63724 2025-06-17T03:57:13Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Personal life */ Improve article 63725 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrée Madeleine Blouin''' (16 December 1921 – 9 April 1986) be a political activist, human rights advocate, den writer from de Central African Republic. == Early life == De daughter of Josephine Wouassimba, a fourteen-year-old Banziri girl, den Pierre Gerbillat, a forty-year-old French colonial businessman, Andrée Blouin be born insyd Bessou, a village insyd Oubangui-Chari (later the Central African Republic). Dem take Andrée at three years of age from ein mommie by ein father den ein new wife Henriette Poussart, den placed insyd de Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny orphanage for girls of mixed race, insyd Brazzaville, insyd de French Congo, where she endured neglect den abuse. Dem create dis orphanage to cover up evidence of Europeans ein "libertine ways" (wey include de crime of outright rape) den to "protect partly white children from living insyd supposedly primitive African conditions." At age 15, de nuns tried to pressure ein into an arranged marriage. She dey spend 14 years insyd de orphanage before she den two oda girls ran away insyd 1938. As she dey grow older, she participate insyd many smaller forms of rebellions plus ein friends. She will persist insyd attending white-only cinemas until they tolerate ein presence. Insyd stores, she will ask for articles insyd French, but de shopkeepers will purposefully "answer insyd Lingala or Kikongo to humiliate ein." Dis was due to ein having French citizenship, but having no real "right" to use de language. She sana will ask for butter, which be "unthinkable for an African to eat," but she later stated dat she "dey to begin somewhere." == Personal life == After she escape from de orphanage, Andrée move plus ein mommie to Brazzaville den begin work as a seamstress. While riding on a riverboat insyd de Congo River, Andrée meet a Belgian aristocrat named Roger Serruys. Soon afterwards, she move insyd plus Serruys to Banningville, where he be appointed de new director of de Belgian Kasai Company. Frustrated by ein insistence dat demma relationship be kept a secret, Andrée dey return home to Brazzaville three months pregnant. She give birth to ein daughter Rita on ein 19th birthday, 16 December 1940. Andrée meet a local Frenchman named Charles Greutz, den they welcome a son René on ein 21st birthday, 16 December 1942. At two years of age, René fall ill plus malaria but dey refuse de lifesaving quinine medication insyd local hospitals because "de French colonial administration insisted" dat na e be for "Europeans only." Blouin "pleaded" plus de mayor to make an exception but be refused, den before long he die from complications related to de disease. Tramautized by de experience, Andrée decide dat Rita should not grow up insyd colonial Africa, den after legally marrying Greutz, she den ein daughter relocate to France insyd 1946. Greutz stay behind insyd Bangui to work, while Andrée den Rita reside plus de Greutz family insyd de town of Gebviller insyd Alsace. Andrée returned to Bangui insyd 1948, den learn dat ein husband Charles dey have an affair. Not long afterwards she meet French engineer André Blouin, one of ein husband ein contemporaries, who be on assignment for de French Bureau of Mines. De two fall insyd love, den after Andrée ein divorce from Greutz be finalized, she den André Blouin dey marry insyd 1952. De couple go on to have two children, a son named Patrick den a daughter named Sylviane. 6p0hb47i7r97mtsmhcrdjvigadmurgg 63726 63725 2025-06-17T03:57:42Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63726 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrée Madeleine Blouin''' (16 December 1921 – 9 April 1986) be a political activist, human rights advocate, den writer from de Central African Republic. == Early life == De daughter of Josephine Wouassimba, a fourteen-year-old Banziri girl, den Pierre Gerbillat, a forty-year-old French colonial businessman, Andrée Blouin be born insyd Bessou, a village insyd Oubangui-Chari (later the Central African Republic). Dem take Andrée at three years of age from ein mommie by ein father den ein new wife Henriette Poussart, den placed insyd de Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny orphanage for girls of mixed race, insyd Brazzaville, insyd de French Congo, where she endured neglect den abuse. Dem create dis orphanage to cover up evidence of Europeans ein "libertine ways" (wey include de crime of outright rape) den to "protect partly white children from living insyd supposedly primitive African conditions." At age 15, de nuns tried to pressure ein into an arranged marriage. She dey spend 14 years insyd de orphanage before she den two oda girls ran away insyd 1938. As she dey grow older, she participate insyd many smaller forms of rebellions plus ein friends. She will persist insyd attending white-only cinemas until they tolerate ein presence. Insyd stores, she will ask for articles insyd French, but de shopkeepers will purposefully "answer insyd Lingala or Kikongo to humiliate ein." Dis was due to ein having French citizenship, but having no real "right" to use de language. She sana will ask for butter, which be "unthinkable for an African to eat," but she later stated dat she "dey to begin somewhere." == Personal life == After she escape from de orphanage, Andrée move plus ein mommie to Brazzaville den begin work as a seamstress. While riding on a riverboat insyd de Congo River, Andrée meet a Belgian aristocrat named Roger Serruys. Soon afterwards, she move insyd plus Serruys to Banningville, where he be appointed de new director of de Belgian Kasai Company. Frustrated by ein insistence dat demma relationship be kept a secret, Andrée dey return home to Brazzaville three months pregnant. She give birth to ein daughter Rita on ein 19th birthday, 16 December 1940. Andrée meet a local Frenchman named Charles Greutz, den they welcome a son René on ein 21st birthday, 16 December 1942. At two years of age, René fall ill plus malaria but dey refuse de lifesaving quinine medication insyd local hospitals because "de French colonial administration insisted" dat na e be for "Europeans only." Blouin "pleaded" plus de mayor to make an exception but be refused, den before long he die from complications related to de disease. Tramautized by de experience, Andrée decide dat Rita should not grow up insyd colonial Africa, den after legally marrying Greutz, she den ein daughter relocate to France insyd 1946. Greutz stay behind insyd Bangui to work, while Andrée den Rita reside plus de Greutz family insyd de town of Gebviller insyd Alsace. Andrée returned to Bangui insyd 1948, den learn dat ein husband Charles dey have an affair. Not long afterwards she meet French engineer André Blouin, one of ein husband ein contemporaries, who be on assignment for de French Bureau of Mines. De two fall insyd love, den after Andrée ein divorce from Greutz be finalized, she den André Blouin dey marry insyd 1952. De couple go on to have two children, a son named Patrick den a daughter named Sylviane. == Activism == oynlwaus0wab87ppo47qgzej5uyrckf 63727 63726 2025-06-17T04:01:37Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Activism */ Improve article 63727 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrée Madeleine Blouin''' (16 December 1921 – 9 April 1986) be a political activist, human rights advocate, den writer from de Central African Republic. == Early life == De daughter of Josephine Wouassimba, a fourteen-year-old Banziri girl, den Pierre Gerbillat, a forty-year-old French colonial businessman, Andrée Blouin be born insyd Bessou, a village insyd Oubangui-Chari (later the Central African Republic). Dem take Andrée at three years of age from ein mommie by ein father den ein new wife Henriette Poussart, den placed insyd de Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny orphanage for girls of mixed race, insyd Brazzaville, insyd de French Congo, where she endured neglect den abuse. Dem create dis orphanage to cover up evidence of Europeans ein "libertine ways" (wey include de crime of outright rape) den to "protect partly white children from living insyd supposedly primitive African conditions." At age 15, de nuns tried to pressure ein into an arranged marriage. She dey spend 14 years insyd de orphanage before she den two oda girls ran away insyd 1938. As she dey grow older, she participate insyd many smaller forms of rebellions plus ein friends. She will persist insyd attending white-only cinemas until they tolerate ein presence. Insyd stores, she will ask for articles insyd French, but de shopkeepers will purposefully "answer insyd Lingala or Kikongo to humiliate ein." Dis was due to ein having French citizenship, but having no real "right" to use de language. She sana will ask for butter, which be "unthinkable for an African to eat," but she later stated dat she "dey to begin somewhere." == Personal life == After she escape from de orphanage, Andrée move plus ein mommie to Brazzaville den begin work as a seamstress. While riding on a riverboat insyd de Congo River, Andrée meet a Belgian aristocrat named Roger Serruys. Soon afterwards, she move insyd plus Serruys to Banningville, where he be appointed de new director of de Belgian Kasai Company. Frustrated by ein insistence dat demma relationship be kept a secret, Andrée dey return home to Brazzaville three months pregnant. She give birth to ein daughter Rita on ein 19th birthday, 16 December 1940. Andrée meet a local Frenchman named Charles Greutz, den they welcome a son René on ein 21st birthday, 16 December 1942. At two years of age, René fall ill plus malaria but dey refuse de lifesaving quinine medication insyd local hospitals because "de French colonial administration insisted" dat na e be for "Europeans only." Blouin "pleaded" plus de mayor to make an exception but be refused, den before long he die from complications related to de disease. Tramautized by de experience, Andrée decide dat Rita should not grow up insyd colonial Africa, den after legally marrying Greutz, she den ein daughter relocate to France insyd 1946. Greutz stay behind insyd Bangui to work, while Andrée den Rita reside plus de Greutz family insyd de town of Gebviller insyd Alsace. Andrée returned to Bangui insyd 1948, den learn dat ein husband Charles dey have an affair. Not long afterwards she meet French engineer André Blouin, one of ein husband ein contemporaries, who be on assignment for de French Bureau of Mines. De two fall insyd love, den after Andrée ein divorce from Greutz be finalized, she den André Blouin dey marry insyd 1952. De couple go on to have two children, a son named Patrick den a daughter named Sylviane. == Activism == Andrée Blouin credit de untimely death of ein young son as ein primary motivation for becoming a political activist later insyd life. Ein son ein death from malaria can have been prevented plus de right medication; however, because of ein African ancestry, he be denied de proper medical treatment. More specifically, since Andreé Blouin be classified as "metisse" or "mixed" because of ein African mommie den European father, dis label be put on ein son as well, dey make it impossible for him to get de malaria treatment. Ein son was ¾ white den both she den her son be French citizens, but they be both treated unjustly because of demma blackness. Dis devastating den racist experience be a potential catalyst for ein interest insyd activism. Blouin dey launch a campaign against de Quinine Law dat prohibited individuals of African ancestry insyd French Equatorial Africa from receiving appropriate medication to treat malaria. i3wzmsrop9pmvazc5ukh2tv3zwsct2o 63728 63727 2025-06-17T04:04:00Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 63728 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrée Madeleine Blouin''' (16 December 1921 – 9 April 1986) be a political activist, human rights advocate, den writer from de Central African Republic. == Early life == De daughter of Josephine Wouassimba, a fourteen-year-old Banziri girl, den Pierre Gerbillat, a forty-year-old French colonial businessman, Andrée Blouin be born insyd Bessou, a village insyd Oubangui-Chari (later the Central African Republic). Dem take Andrée at three years of age from ein mommie by ein father den ein new wife Henriette Poussart, den placed insyd de Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny orphanage for girls of mixed race, insyd Brazzaville, insyd de French Congo, where she endured neglect den abuse. Dem create dis orphanage to cover up evidence of Europeans ein "libertine ways" (wey include de crime of outright rape) den to "protect partly white children from living insyd supposedly primitive African conditions." At age 15, de nuns tried to pressure ein into an arranged marriage. She dey spend 14 years insyd de orphanage before she den two oda girls ran away insyd 1938. As she dey grow older, she participate insyd many smaller forms of rebellions plus ein friends. She will persist insyd attending white-only cinemas until they tolerate ein presence. Insyd stores, she will ask for articles insyd French, but de shopkeepers will purposefully "answer insyd Lingala or Kikongo to humiliate ein." Dis was due to ein having French citizenship, but having no real "right" to use de language. She sana will ask for butter, which be "unthinkable for an African to eat," but she later stated dat she "dey to begin somewhere." == Personal life == After she escape from de orphanage, Andrée move plus ein mommie to Brazzaville den begin work as a seamstress. While riding on a riverboat insyd de Congo River, Andrée meet a Belgian aristocrat named Roger Serruys. Soon afterwards, she move insyd plus Serruys to Banningville, where he be appointed de new director of de Belgian Kasai Company. Frustrated by ein insistence dat demma relationship be kept a secret, Andrée dey return home to Brazzaville three months pregnant. She give birth to ein daughter Rita on ein 19th birthday, 16 December 1940. Andrée meet a local Frenchman named Charles Greutz, den they welcome a son René on ein 21st birthday, 16 December 1942. At two years of age, René fall ill plus malaria but dey refuse de lifesaving quinine medication insyd local hospitals because "de French colonial administration insisted" dat na e be for "Europeans only." Blouin "pleaded" plus de mayor to make an exception but be refused, den before long he die from complications related to de disease. Tramautized by de experience, Andrée decide dat Rita should not grow up insyd colonial Africa, den after legally marrying Greutz, she den ein daughter relocate to France insyd 1946. Greutz stay behind insyd Bangui to work, while Andrée den Rita reside plus de Greutz family insyd de town of Gebviller insyd Alsace. Andrée returned to Bangui insyd 1948, den learn dat ein husband Charles dey have an affair. Not long afterwards she meet French engineer André Blouin, one of ein husband ein contemporaries, who be on assignment for de French Bureau of Mines. De two fall insyd love, den after Andrée ein divorce from Greutz be finalized, she den André Blouin dey marry insyd 1952. De couple go on to have two children, a son named Patrick den a daughter named Sylviane. == Activism == Andrée Blouin credit de untimely death of ein young son as ein primary motivation for becoming a political activist later insyd life. Ein son ein death from malaria can have been prevented plus de right medication; however, because of ein African ancestry, he be denied de proper medical treatment. More specifically, since Andreé Blouin be classified as "metisse" or "mixed" because of ein African mommie den European father, dis label be put on ein son as well, dey make it impossible for him to get de malaria treatment. Ein son was ¾ white den both she den her son be French citizens, but they be both treated unjustly because of demma blackness. Dis devastating den racist experience be a potential catalyst for ein interest insyd activism. Blouin dey launch a campaign against de Quinine Law dat prohibited individuals of African ancestry insyd French Equatorial Africa from receiving appropriate medication to treat malaria. Insyd de 1950s, she leave ein new husband den ein daughter to travel to Guinea to support de country ein independence movement. Blouin dey join Sékou Touré, de leader of de Guinean Democratic Party, insyd de fight for independence from France. Blouin drive all over de country plus members of ein party, "organizing rallies den delivering speeches calling for independence." Insyd 1958, Guinea be de sole French territory to choose independence. Through ein work plus Touré, she meet many oda activists, such as Prime Minister Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana den Félix Houphouet-Boigny of Ivory Coast. gapul4sjf0gkawz2043bn6n7qiwcc7u 14 17381 63750 2025-06-17T06:53:23Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63750 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17382 63751 2025-06-17T06:53:33Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63751 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17383 63752 2025-06-17T06:53:44Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63752 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17384 63753 2025-06-17T06:53:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63753 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17385 63754 2025-06-17T06:54:04Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63754 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17386 63755 2025-06-17T06:54:13Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63755 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17387 63756 2025-06-17T06:54:23Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63756 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17388 63757 2025-06-17T06:54:33Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63757 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17389 63758 2025-06-17T06:54:45Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63758 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17390 63759 2025-06-17T06:55:59Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63759 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17391 63760 2025-06-17T06:56:13Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63760 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17392 63761 2025-06-17T06:56:24Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63761 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17393 63762 2025-06-17T06:56:38Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63762 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17394 63763 2025-06-17T06:56:52Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63763 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17395 63765 2025-06-17T06:57:05Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63765 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17396 63766 2025-06-17T06:57:21Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63766 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17397 63767 2025-06-17T06:57:33Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63767 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17398 63768 2025-06-17T06:57:44Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63768 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17399 63769 2025-06-17T06:57:55Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63769 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17400 63770 2025-06-17T06:58:51Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63770 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17401 63771 2025-06-17T06:59:05Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63771 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17402 63772 2025-06-17T06:59:15Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63772 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17403 63773 2025-06-17T06:59:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63773 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17404 63774 2025-06-17T06:59:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63774 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17405 63775 2025-06-17T06:59:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63775 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17406 63776 2025-06-17T07:00:05Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63776 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 17407 63777 2025-06-17T07:00:17Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 63777 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 17408 63783 2025-06-17T08:01:30Z Deishini Mariam 1761 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1292123418|Walter Sisulu]]" 63783 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Walter Max Ulyate Sisulu''' (18 May 1912 – 5 May 2003) demm talk say he be [[South Africa|South African]] anti-apartheid activist and member of de African National Congress (ANC). Between terms as ANC Secretary-General (1949–1954) and ANC Deputy President (1991–1994), dem take Accuse No.2 in the Rivonia Trial and was incarcerated on Robben Island where he take serve more than 25 years' imprisonment for ein anti-Apartheid revolutionary activism. Dem talk say he don’t see close partnership plus[[Oliver Tambo]] and [[Nelson Mandela]], with whom he played a key role in organising de 1952 Defiance Campaign and de establishment of de ANC Youth League and Umkhonto we Sizwe. E be like say he don’t dey be demmaCentral Committee of de South African Communist Party.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Trewhela|first=Paul|date=2017-07-18|title=ANC and SACP – A history together (and apart)|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2017-07-18-anc-and-sacp-a-history-together-and-apart/|access-date=2022-11-02|website=[[Daily Maverick]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Myburgh|first=James|date=2017-01-31|title=The SACP's secret Moscow papers|url=https://www.politicsweb.co.za/opinion/the-anc-mk-and-the-communists|access-date=2022-11-02|website=Politicsweb|language=en}}</ref> == Family == De don’t de bon Walter Sisulu inyde 1912 insyde demma town of Ngcobo in de Union of South Africa, part of what is now de Eastern Cape province (then de Transkei). Dem talk say he don’t de be unusual for ein generation insyde South Africa, he don’t be uncertain of ein birthday, but he don’t take celebrate tam on 18 May.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2003-05-06|title=Obituary: Walter Sisulu|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2003-05-06-obituary-walter-sisulu/|access-date=2022-11-02|website=The Mail & Guardian|language=en-ZA}}</ref> Ein mama, Alice Mase Sisulu, take be Xhosa domestic worker and ei papa, Albert Victor Dickinson, take be white civil servant and magistrate. Dickinson did not play a part in ein son's upbringing: Sisulu reportedly met him only once, in de 1940s, before he died in de 1970s.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2003-05-06|title=Sisulu was mum on father|url=https://www.news24.com/news24/sisulu-was-mum-on-father-20030506|access-date=2022-11-02|website=News24|language=en-US}}</ref> Sisulu ein sister, Rosabella, don’t dey raise by ein mama’s family, who were descended from de Thembu clan. He was close with ein uncle, Dyantyi Hlakula, who was passionate about Xhosa culture and who oversaw his initiation.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Lelyveld|first=Nita|date=2003-05-06|title=Walter Sisulu, 90; Political Leader Helped Shape Anti-Apartheid Fight|url=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/archives/la-me-walter-sisulu-20030506-20160321-snap-htmlstory.html|access-date=2022-11-02|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref> Although he don’t dey technically of mixed race, Sisulu identified strongly as black and as Xhosa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> [[Category:1912 births]] 9xz7qlz4wljsqmir1ajmlimzjui7hdx 63787 63783 2025-06-17T08:30:15Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 i added a data box 63787 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Walter Max Ulyate Sisulu''' (18 May 1912 – 5 May 2003) demm talk say he be [[South Africa|South African]] anti-apartheid activist and member of de African National Congress (ANC). Between terms as ANC Secretary-General (1949–1954) and ANC Deputy President (1991–1994), dem take Accuse No.2 in the Rivonia Trial and was incarcerated on Robben Island where he take serve more than 25 years' imprisonment for ein anti-Apartheid revolutionary activism. Dem talk say he don’t see close partnership plus[[Oliver Tambo]] and [[Nelson Mandela]], with whom he played a key role in organising de 1952 Defiance Campaign and de establishment of de ANC Youth League and Umkhonto we Sizwe. E be like say he don’t dey be demmaCentral Committee of de South African Communist Party.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Trewhela|first=Paul|date=2017-07-18|title=ANC and SACP – A history together (and apart)|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2017-07-18-anc-and-sacp-a-history-together-and-apart/|access-date=2022-11-02|website=[[Daily Maverick]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Myburgh|first=James|date=2017-01-31|title=The SACP's secret Moscow papers|url=https://www.politicsweb.co.za/opinion/the-anc-mk-and-the-communists|access-date=2022-11-02|website=Politicsweb|language=en}}</ref> == Family == De don’t de bon Walter Sisulu inyde 1912 insyde demma town of Ngcobo in de Union of South Africa, part of what is now de Eastern Cape province (then de Transkei). Dem talk say he don’t de be unusual for ein generation insyde South Africa, he don’t be uncertain of ein birthday, but he don’t take celebrate tam on 18 May.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2003-05-06|title=Obituary: Walter Sisulu|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2003-05-06-obituary-walter-sisulu/|access-date=2022-11-02|website=The Mail & Guardian|language=en-ZA}}</ref> Ein mama, Alice Mase Sisulu, take be Xhosa domestic worker and ei papa, Albert Victor Dickinson, take be white civil servant and magistrate. Dickinson did not play a part in ein son's upbringing: Sisulu reportedly met him only once, in de 1940s, before he died in de 1970s.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2003-05-06|title=Sisulu was mum on father|url=https://www.news24.com/news24/sisulu-was-mum-on-father-20030506|access-date=2022-11-02|website=News24|language=en-US}}</ref> Sisulu ein sister, Rosabella, don’t dey raise by ein mama’s family, who were descended from de Thembu clan. He was close with ein uncle, Dyantyi Hlakula, who was passionate about Xhosa culture and who oversaw his initiation.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Lelyveld|first=Nita|date=2003-05-06|title=Walter Sisulu, 90; Political Leader Helped Shape Anti-Apartheid Fight|url=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/archives/la-me-walter-sisulu-20030506-20160321-snap-htmlstory.html|access-date=2022-11-02|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref> Although he don’t dey technically of mixed race, Sisulu identified strongly as black and as Xhosa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> [[Category:1912 births]] q44cy69dgwewwqpyv23ijujrg6inzuy 0 17409 63786 2025-06-17T08:27:10Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295875671|Abiy Ahmed]]" 63786 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Abiy Ahmed Ali''' (Oromo: Abiyi Ahmed Alii; Amharic: ዐብይ አሕመድ ዐሊ; E born on 15 August 1976) e be Ethiopian bigman wey dey run Ethiopia as Prime Minister from 2018 till date and e be di boss of Prosperity Party from 2019<ref>{{Cite web|title=Prime Minister|url=https://pmo.gov.et/pm/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420170527/https://pmo.gov.et/pm/|archive-date=20 April 2019|access-date=6 June 2019|website=The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia's Office of the Prime Minister|quote=H.E. Abiy Ahmed Ali (PhD) is the fourth Prime Minister of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia}}</ref>"E rise through di government ranks via Information Network Security Agency (INSA), wey start for 2006.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Gardner|first=Tom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dVnbEAAAQBAJ|title=The Abiy Project: God, Power and War in the New Ethiopia|date=2024-06-20|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-1-911723-10-3|pages=52–53|language=en}}</ref> He dey win 2019 Nobel Peace Prize for im work for peace and cooperation among nations, particularly for im initiative to end di border conflict with Eritrea". Abiy be di third chairman of Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) wey rule Ethiopia for 28 years, and e be di first Oromo person to hold dat position. Abiy be member of Ethiopian parliament, and previously e dey member of Oromo Democratic Party (ODP), one of di EPRDF coalition parties, till 2019 wen EPRDF stop. E form im own party, Prosperity Party, after dat.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 February 2018|title=Ethiopia's ODP picks new chairman in bid to produce next Prime Minister|url=http://www.africanews.com/2018/02/22/ethiopia-s-opdo-picks-new-chairman-in-bid-to-produce-next-prime-minister/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209051233/http://www.africanews.com/2018/02/22/ethiopia-s-opdo-picks-new-chairman-in-bid-to-produce-next-prime-minister/|archive-date=9 December 2018|access-date=22 February 2018|website=Africa News}}</ref> [[Category:Living people]] ov837l3dis6bmfns00vv74s2w7svp8x 63788 63786 2025-06-17T08:34:45Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 i added a data box 63788 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Abiy Ahmed Ali''' (Oromo: Abiyi Ahmed Alii; Amharic: ዐብይ አሕመድ ዐሊ; E born on 15 August 1976) e be Ethiopian bigman wey dey run Ethiopia as Prime Minister from 2018 till date and e be di boss of Prosperity Party from 2019<ref>{{Cite web|title=Prime Minister|url=https://pmo.gov.et/pm/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420170527/https://pmo.gov.et/pm/|archive-date=20 April 2019|access-date=6 June 2019|website=The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia's Office of the Prime Minister|quote=H.E. Abiy Ahmed Ali (PhD) is the fourth Prime Minister of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia}}</ref>"E rise through di government ranks via Information Network Security Agency (INSA), wey start for 2006.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Gardner|first=Tom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dVnbEAAAQBAJ|title=The Abiy Project: God, Power and War in the New Ethiopia|date=2024-06-20|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-1-911723-10-3|pages=52–53|language=en}}</ref> He dey win 2019 Nobel Peace Prize for im work for peace and cooperation among nations, particularly for im initiative to end di border conflict with Eritrea". Abiy be di third chairman of Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) wey rule Ethiopia for 28 years, and e be di first Oromo person to hold dat position. Abiy be member of Ethiopian parliament, and previously e dey member of Oromo Democratic Party (ODP), one of di EPRDF coalition parties, till 2019 wen EPRDF stop. E form im own party, Prosperity Party, after dat.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 February 2018|title=Ethiopia's ODP picks new chairman in bid to produce next Prime Minister|url=http://www.africanews.com/2018/02/22/ethiopia-s-opdo-picks-new-chairman-in-bid-to-produce-next-prime-minister/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209051233/http://www.africanews.com/2018/02/22/ethiopia-s-opdo-picks-new-chairman-in-bid-to-produce-next-prime-minister/|archive-date=9 December 2018|access-date=22 February 2018|website=Africa News}}</ref> [[Category:Living people]] 7s9tquzemjfpmqcwcq0jq2a56g8y0b5 63789 63788 2025-06-17T08:40:36Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 63789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Abiy Ahmed Ali''' (Oromo: Abiyi Ahmed Alii; Amharic: ዐብይ አሕመድ ዐሊ; E born on 15 August 1976) e be Ethiopian bigman wey dey run Ethiopia as Prime Minister from 2018 till date and e be di boss of Prosperity Party from 2019<ref>{{Cite web|title=Prime Minister|url=https://pmo.gov.et/pm/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420170527/https://pmo.gov.et/pm/|archive-date=20 April 2019|access-date=6 June 2019|website=The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia's Office of the Prime Minister|quote=H.E. Abiy Ahmed Ali (PhD) is the fourth Prime Minister of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia}}</ref>"E rise through di government ranks via Information Network Security Agency (INSA), wey start for 2006.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Gardner|first=Tom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dVnbEAAAQBAJ|title=The Abiy Project: God, Power and War in the New Ethiopia|date=2024-06-20|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-1-911723-10-3|pages=52–53|language=en}}</ref> He dey win 2019 Nobel Peace Prize for im work for peace and cooperation among nations, particularly for im initiative to end di border conflict with Eritrea". Abiy be di third chairman of Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) wey rule Ethiopia for 28 years, and e be di first Oromo person to hold dat position. Abiy be member of Ethiopian parliament, and previously e dey member of Oromo Democratic Party (ODP), one of di EPRDF coalition parties, till 2019 wen EPRDF stop. E form im own party, Prosperity Party, after dat.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 February 2018|title=Ethiopia's ODP picks new chairman in bid to produce next Prime Minister|url=http://www.africanews.com/2018/02/22/ethiopia-s-opdo-picks-new-chairman-in-bid-to-produce-next-prime-minister/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209051233/http://www.africanews.com/2018/02/22/ethiopia-s-opdo-picks-new-chairman-in-bid-to-produce-next-prime-minister/|archive-date=9 December 2018|access-date=22 February 2018|website=Africa News}}</ref> [[Category:Living people]] == References == {{reflist|refs= <ref name="Abiy_Ahmed_PhDthesis_2016">{{cite web |last=Ahmed |first=Abiy |author1-link=Abiy Ahmed |title=Social capital and its role in traditional conflict resolution: the case of inter-religious conflict in Jimma Zone of the Oromia Regional State in Ethiopia |year=2016 |institution=[[Addis Ababa University]] |url=https://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/files/2022/05/Abiy_Ahmed_Dissertation_IPSS-AAU-2016.pdf |access-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505125630/https://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/files/2022/05/Abiy_Ahmed_Dissertation_IPSS-AAU-2016.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="deWaal_AbiyAhmed_PhD">{{cite web |last1=de Waal |first1=Alex |author-link=Alex de Waal |title=Abiy Ahmed—PhD? |date=4 May 2022 |website=[[World Peace Foundation]] |url=https://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/2022/05/04/abiy-ahmed-phd |access-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622091019/https://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/2022/05/04/abiy-ahmed-phd |archive-date=22 June 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="BBC_4Nov_2witnesses">{{cite news |title=Ethiopia's Tigray crisis: How a soldier survived an 11-hour gun battle |date=10 December 2020 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55215431 |access-date=11 December 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201210063925/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55215431 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> <!-- Not in use <ref name="NobelWinner">{{cite news |title=Nobel Peace Prize winning prime minister of ethiopia abiy ahmed under fire for ethnic cleansing and human rights abuses |date=2 March 2021 |newspaper=[[Today News Africa]] |url=https://todaynewsafrica.com/nobel-peace-prize-winning-prime-minister-of-ethiopia-abiy-ahmed-under-fire-for-ethnic-cleansing-and-human-rights-abuses/ |access-date=2 March 2021}}</ref> Not in use --> <ref name="ThomReut_Sero4Nov2020_attack">{{cite news |title=Inside a military base in Ethiopia's Tigray: soldiers decry betrayal by former comrades |date=17 December 2020 |agency=[[Thomson Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-conflict-attack-idUSKBN28R1IE |access-date=18 December 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201217225827/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-conflict-attack-idUSKBN28R1IE |archive-date=17 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> }} == External links == {{Commons}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Scholia|topic}} * {{Official website|https://pmo.gov.et/pm/|Office of the PM official website}} * {{Facebook|id=PMofFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia}} * {{Nobelprize|name=Abiy Ahmed Ali}} {{s-start}} {{s-gov}} {{s-bef|before=Teklebirhan Woldearegay}} {{s-ttl|title=Director General of the [[Information Network Security Agency]]|years=2008–2015}} {{s-aft|after=Temesgen Tiruneh}} |- {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=Demitu Hambisa}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Ministry of Innovation and Technology (Ethiopia)|Minister of Science and Technology]]|years=2015–2016}} {{s-aft|after=Getahun Mekuria}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Hailemariam Desalegn]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of heads of government of Ethiopia|Prime Minister of Ethiopia]]|years=2018–present}} {{s-inc}} |- {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Lemma Megersa]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Leader of the [[Oromo Democratic Party]]|years=2018–2019}} {{s-non|reason=Position abolished|rows=2}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Hailemariam Desalegn]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Chairman of the [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front]]|years=2018–2019}} |- {{s-new|party}} {{s-ttl|title=President of the [[Prosperity Party]]|years=2019–present}} {{s-inc}} {{s-end}} {{EthiopianPMs}} {{Current heads of government}} {{Nobel Peace Prize laureates}} {{2019 Nobel Prize winners}}{{Portal bar|Ethiopia|Politics|Africa|Biography|Law}}{{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Abiy Ahmed}} [[Category:Abiy Ahmed| ]] [[Category:1976 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:21st-century Ethiopian politicians]] [[Category:Prime ministers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian military personnel]] [[Category:Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front politicians]] [[Category:Oromo Democratic Party politicians]] [[Category:Addis Ababa University alumni]] [[Category:Ashland University alumni]] [[Category:Ethiopian Nobel laureates]] [[Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates]] [[Category:People from Oromia]] [[Category:Oromo people]] [[Category:Ethiopian Pentecostals]] [[Category:People of the Ethiopian Civil War]] [[Category:Politicians of the Tigray war|*]] [[Category:Alumni of the University of Greenwich]] [[Category:Prosperity Party politicians]] 11o467r0lpvh4dyz7r5w0c2xzm7rtc4 0 17410 63791 2025-06-17T08:46:56Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63791 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> [[Category:Living people]] 8xnv78ukmy345wau8w7hzhaedbpeidh 63792 63791 2025-06-17T08:49:49Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63792 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> [[Category:Living people]] f56j823mh7ql7l68n7bx1del5pyayds 63793 63792 2025-06-17T08:50:52Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63793 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promised to tackle poverty and unemployment, as well as the spread of [[HIV/AIDS|HIV-AIDS]], which he pledged to stop in Botswana by 2016. [[Category:Living people]] dr6h7r7dnuhbasaemasrazfed2vsb8c 63794 63793 2025-06-17T08:51:45Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63794 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promise say he go fight poverty and joblessness, plus stop the spread of HIV-AIDS. He talk say by 2016, dem go end am for Botswana. [[Category:Living people]] t8ptbvycloko6x14gxkjkqzgeux0kwf 63795 63794 2025-06-17T08:53:29Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63795 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promise say he go fight poverty and joblessness, plus stop the spread of HIV-AIDS. He talk say by 2016, dem go end am for Botswana. On 14th July 2007, Mogae talk say he go step down nine months later. He step down as President on 1st April 2008, and ein Vice-President, Lieutenant General Seretse Khama Ian Khama, take over from am.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF "BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE"] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> He would have been required to leave office in 2008 in any event; a constitutional amendment passed in 1997 limited the president to a total of 10 years in office, whether successive or separated. [[Category:Living people]] mv20uhit5cqsk13ki80xrpxl6bi5exl 63796 63795 2025-06-17T08:54:54Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63796 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promise say he go fight poverty and joblessness, plus stop the spread of HIV-AIDS. He talk say by 2016, dem go end am for Botswana. On 14th July 2007, Mogae talk say he go step down nine months later. He step down as President on 1st April 2008, and ein Vice-President, Lieutenant General Seretse Khama Ian Khama, take over from am.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF "BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE"] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> He for lef power for 2008 anyway, because one new law wey dem pass for 1997 talk say president no fit stay more than 10 years, whether e be straight or break-break. [[Category:Living people]] t8fod9nd7i85286kcywyjzuebz16far 63797 63796 2025-06-17T09:00:16Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63797 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promise say he go fight poverty and joblessness, plus stop the spread of HIV-AIDS. He talk say by 2016, dem go end am for Botswana. On 14th July 2007, Mogae talk say he go resign nine months later.<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=84&art_id=nw20070715145732985C233999 "Botswana's Mogae set to retire"], AFP (''IOL''), 15 July 2007.</ref> True true, he step down as President on 1st April 2008, and ein Vice-President, Lieutenant General Seretse Khama Ian Khama, take over from am.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> But anyway, he for lef the seat that same 2008, because one law wey dem pass for 1997 talk say president no fit stay more than 10 years for power, whether the years follow each other or dem break inside. Mogae currently serves as Special Envoy of the United Nations Secretary-General on Climate Change.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Special and Personal Representatives and Envoys of the Secretary-General|url=https://www.un.org/sg/srsg/other.shtml|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> In 2010, he joined the advisory board of US nonprofit TeachAids. He also currently serves as chairman of the Choppies supermarket group where he earned Pula 529,000 in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mosikare|first=Oarabile|date=19 October 2012|title=Inequality defines Botswana|url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=231&dir=2012/October/Friday19|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=MmegiOnline}}</ref> [[Category:Living people]] fiwcpw9mlnfd0jby6vh0dzwlcz1g4fh 63799 63797 2025-06-17T09:02:58Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63799 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promise say he go fight poverty and joblessness, plus stop the spread of HIV-AIDS. He talk say by 2016, dem go end am for Botswana. On 14th July 2007, Mogae talk say he go resign nine months later.<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=84&art_id=nw20070715145732985C233999 "Botswana's Mogae set to retire"], AFP (''IOL''), 15 July 2007.</ref> True true, he step down as President on 1st April 2008, and ein Vice-President, Lieutenant General Seretse Khama Ian Khama, take over from am.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> But anyway, he for lef the seat that same 2008, because one law wey dem pass for 1997 talk say president no fit stay more than 10 years for power, whether the years follow each other or dem break inside. Mogae currently serves as Special Envoy of the United Nations Secretary-General on Climate Change.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Special and Personal Representatives and Envoys of the Secretary-General|url=https://www.un.org/sg/srsg/other.shtml|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> In 2010, he joined the advisory board of US nonprofit TeachAids. He also currently serves as chairman of the Choppies supermarket group where he earned Pula 529,000 in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mosikare|first=Oarabile|date=19 October 2012|title=Inequality defines Botswana|url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=231&dir=2012/October/Friday19|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=MmegiOnline}}</ref> "For 2013, Mogae join former Tanzania President Benjamin Mkapa take co-chair one big talk about sustainable development. The event be one symposium wey UONGOZI Institute do together with Club de Madrid<ref>{{cite web|title=Mkapa, Mogae to chair sustainable development meet|url=http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121063833/http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|archive-date=21 November 2013|access-date=19 November 2013|work=Daily News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae is the former President of Botswana, Club de Madrid Member|url=https://clubmadrid.org/who/members/mogae-festus/|access-date=2024-05-21|website=Club de Madrid|language=en-US}}</ref> wey Mkapa too be member inside. [[Category:Living people]] hbeyc518af982tkz0wxs8ftdisf24a5 63801 63799 2025-06-17T09:08:58Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63801 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promise say he go fight poverty and joblessness, plus stop the spread of HIV-AIDS. He talk say by 2016, dem go end am for Botswana. On 14th July 2007, Mogae talk say he go resign nine months later.<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=84&art_id=nw20070715145732985C233999 "Botswana's Mogae set to retire"], AFP (''IOL''), 15 July 2007.</ref> True true, he step down as President on 1st April 2008, and ein Vice-President, Lieutenant General Seretse Khama Ian Khama, take over from am.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> But anyway, he for lef the seat that same 2008, because one law wey dem pass for 1997 talk say president no fit stay more than 10 years for power, whether the years follow each other or dem break inside. Mogae currently serves as Special Envoy of the United Nations Secretary-General on Climate Change.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Special and Personal Representatives and Envoys of the Secretary-General|url=https://www.un.org/sg/srsg/other.shtml|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> In 2010, he joined the advisory board of US nonprofit TeachAids. He also currently serves as chairman of the Choppies supermarket group where he earned Pula 529,000 in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mosikare|first=Oarabile|date=19 October 2012|title=Inequality defines Botswana|url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=231&dir=2012/October/Friday19|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=MmegiOnline}}</ref> "For 2013, Mogae join former Tanzania President Benjamin Mkapa take co-chair one big talk about sustainable development. The event be one symposium wey UONGOZI Institute do together with Club de Madrid<ref>{{cite web|title=Mkapa, Mogae to chair sustainable development meet|url=http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121063833/http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|archive-date=21 November 2013|access-date=19 November 2013|work=Daily News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae is the former President of Botswana, Club de Madrid Member|url=https://clubmadrid.org/who/members/mogae-festus/|access-date=2024-05-21|website=Club de Madrid|language=en-US}}</ref> wey Mkapa too be member inside. == E personal side == Festus Mogae marry Barbara Mogae for 1967. Dem get three daughters — Nametso, Chedza and Boikaego — wey dem born between 1969 and 1987.<ref name="dm">{{cite news|first=Jay|last=Naidoo|title=A leader I would vote for: Botswana's former president Festus Mogae|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2014-04-04-a-leader-i-would-vote-for-botswanas-former-president-festus-mogae/|work=[[Daily Maverick]]|date=4 April 2014|access-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> [[File:Mr_festus_Mogae_being_sworn_in_by_chief_Julian_Nganunu_April_1_1998.jpg|thumb|FFestus Mogae take oath as President on 1st April 1998, Chief Justice Julian Nganunu be the one wey swear am in]] == Awards and Big-Big Respect Wey Dem Give Am == On 20th March 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy give Mogae the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur. E talk say dem give am because of the 'better leadership' wey he show to make Botswana turn example for democracy and good governance. * Presidential Order of Honour of Botswana (1989) * Officier de I’Order Nationale D’e Cote d’Ivoire (1979) * Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws – University of Botswana (September 1998) * I’Order Nationale du Mali and the HATAB's Award for Outstanding Contribution to Botswana's Tourism Industry (1997) * the Global Marketplace Award by the Corporate Council on Africa - Houston, USA (May 1999) * Honorary Fellowship of the Botswana Institute of Bankers – Gaborone, Botswana (July 1999) * Distinguished Achievement Award for AIDS Leadership in Southern Africa by the Medunsa Trust - Washington DC, USA (June 2000) * AIDS Leadership Award by Harvard AIDS Institute – Gaborone (December 2001) * 2002 Congressional Black Caucus Annual Legislative Conference Weekend Chairman's Award – Washington D.C., USA (September 2002) * Africa-America Institute National Leadership Award – New York, USA (September 2002) * Honorary Fellow – University College Oxford (2003) * The Knight Commander of the Most Courteous Order of the Kingdom of Lesotho – Maseru, Lesotho (April 2004) * The Baylor International Pediatric AIDS Initiative (BIPAI) International Leadership Award – Gaborone (October 2004) * The Golden Plate Award by the Academy of Achievement - New York, USA (June 2005) * The Pan African Tsetse and Tryponofomiasis (PATTEC) by the African Union – Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (January 2007) * Doctorate of Humanity by the University of Limkokwing, Gaborone Botswana (January 2008) * The Commander of the Legion d’Honneur Grand Croix of the Republic of France – Paris, France (March 2008) * Taylor and Francis Award for significant contribution to women's development and welfare – Gaborone, Botswana (July 2008) * Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Southern California<ref>{{Cite web|title=Past Recipients – Honorary Degrees|url=https://honorarydegrees.usc.edu/past-recipients/|access-date=2024-06-07|website=honorarydegrees.usc.edu}}</ref> * Croix - Highest award in Madagascar granted to dignitaries of the Nation) Antananarivo, Madagascar (June 2006)[https://www.biust.ac.bw/about-us/chancellor/] For 2008, Mogae win the Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership. The award come with US$5 million wey dem go give am over 10 years, plus US$200,000 every year for the rest of ein life. For London City Hall on 20th October 2008, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk say: 'President Mogae show better leadership wey keep Botswana stable and moving forward, even though HIV/AIDS wahala nearly spoil the future of the country and ein people [[Category:Living people]] 8iz8z1w6hl951ci3g4cpj6qn5vpbxsm 63802 63801 2025-06-17T09:13:03Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63802 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promise say he go fight poverty and joblessness, plus stop the spread of HIV-AIDS. He talk say by 2016, dem go end am for Botswana. On 14th July 2007, Mogae talk say he go resign nine months later.<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=84&art_id=nw20070715145732985C233999 "Botswana's Mogae set to retire"], AFP (''IOL''), 15 July 2007.</ref> True true, he step down as President on 1st April 2008, and ein Vice-President, Lieutenant General Seretse Khama Ian Khama, take over from am.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> But anyway, he for lef the seat that same 2008, because one law wey dem pass for 1997 talk say president no fit stay more than 10 years for power, whether the years follow each other or dem break inside. Mogae currently serves as Special Envoy of the United Nations Secretary-General on Climate Change.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Special and Personal Representatives and Envoys of the Secretary-General|url=https://www.un.org/sg/srsg/other.shtml|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> In 2010, he joined the advisory board of US nonprofit TeachAids. He also currently serves as chairman of the Choppies supermarket group where he earned Pula 529,000 in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mosikare|first=Oarabile|date=19 October 2012|title=Inequality defines Botswana|url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=231&dir=2012/October/Friday19|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=MmegiOnline}}</ref> "For 2013, Mogae join former Tanzania President Benjamin Mkapa take co-chair one big talk about sustainable development. The event be one symposium wey UONGOZI Institute do together with Club de Madrid<ref>{{cite web|title=Mkapa, Mogae to chair sustainable development meet|url=http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121063833/http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|archive-date=21 November 2013|access-date=19 November 2013|work=Daily News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae is the former President of Botswana, Club de Madrid Member|url=https://clubmadrid.org/who/members/mogae-festus/|access-date=2024-05-21|website=Club de Madrid|language=en-US}}</ref> wey Mkapa too be member inside. == E personal side == Festus Mogae marry Barbara Mogae for 1967. Dem get three daughters — Nametso, Chedza and Boikaego — wey dem born between 1969 and 1987.<ref name="dm">{{cite news|first=Jay|last=Naidoo|title=A leader I would vote for: Botswana's former president Festus Mogae|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2014-04-04-a-leader-i-would-vote-for-botswanas-former-president-festus-mogae/|work=[[Daily Maverick]]|date=4 April 2014|access-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> [[File:Mr_festus_Mogae_being_sworn_in_by_chief_Julian_Nganunu_April_1_1998.jpg|thumb|FFestus Mogae take oath as President on 1st April 1998, Chief Justice Julian Nganunu be the one wey swear am in]] == Awards and Big-Big Respect Wey Dem Give Am == On 20th March 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy give Mogae the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur. E talk say dem give am because of the 'better leadership' wey he show to make Botswana turn example for democracy and good governance. * Presidential Order of Honour of Botswana (1989) * Officier de I’Order Nationale D’e Cote d’Ivoire (1979) * Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws – University of Botswana (September 1998) * I’Order Nationale du Mali and the HATAB's Award for Outstanding Contribution to Botswana's Tourism Industry (1997) * the Global Marketplace Award by the Corporate Council on Africa - Houston, USA (May 1999) * Honorary Fellowship of the Botswana Institute of Bankers – Gaborone, Botswana (July 1999) * Distinguished Achievement Award for AIDS Leadership in Southern Africa by the Medunsa Trust - Washington DC, USA (June 2000) * AIDS Leadership Award by Harvard AIDS Institute – Gaborone (December 2001) * 2002 Congressional Black Caucus Annual Legislative Conference Weekend Chairman's Award – Washington D.C., USA (September 2002) * Africa-America Institute National Leadership Award – New York, USA (September 2002) * Honorary Fellow – University College Oxford (2003) * The Knight Commander of the Most Courteous Order of the Kingdom of Lesotho – Maseru, Lesotho (April 2004) * The Baylor International Pediatric AIDS Initiative (BIPAI) International Leadership Award – Gaborone (October 2004) * The Golden Plate Award by the Academy of Achievement - New York, USA (June 2005) * The Pan African Tsetse and Tryponofomiasis (PATTEC) by the African Union – Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (January 2007) * Doctorate of Humanity by the University of Limkokwing, Gaborone Botswana (January 2008) * The Commander of the Legion d’Honneur Grand Croix of the Republic of France – Paris, France (March 2008) * Taylor and Francis Award for significant contribution to women's development and welfare – Gaborone, Botswana (July 2008) * Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Southern California<ref>{{Cite web|title=Past Recipients – Honorary Degrees|url=https://honorarydegrees.usc.edu/past-recipients/|access-date=2024-06-07|website=honorarydegrees.usc.edu}}</ref> * Croix - Highest award in Madagascar granted to dignitaries of the Nation) Antananarivo, Madagascar (June 2006)[https://www.biust.ac.bw/about-us/chancellor/] For 2008, Mogae win the Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership. The award come with US$5 million wey dem go give am over 10 years, plus US$200,000 every year for the rest of ein life. For London City Hall on 20th October 2008, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk say: 'President Mogae show better leadership wey keep Botswana stable and moving forward, even though HIV/AIDS wahala nearly spoil the future of the country and ein people Plus all that, Mogae get plenty other honours too — like the Naledi Ya Botswana award wey he win for 2003, and the Golden Plate Award from the American Academy of Achievement wey dem give am for 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement|url=https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#public-service|website=www.achievement.org|publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]}}</ref> A Trustee of the Rhodes Trust since 2010,<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rhodes Trust and Trustees|url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/rhodes-trust/trustees}}</ref> and in 2016, Mogae was appointed a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FESTUS MOGAE (Trustee of the Rhodes Trust)|url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/appointmentsandawards/festus-mogae-trustee-of-the-rhodes-trust|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630052141/http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/appointmentsandawards/festus-mogae-trustee-of-the-rhodes-trust|archive-date=30 June 2016|access-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> [[Category:Living people]] er5ghnukdmfdkfi8gjlejw8beg2hk19 63803 63802 2025-06-17T09:15:32Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63803 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promise say he go fight poverty and joblessness, plus stop the spread of HIV-AIDS. He talk say by 2016, dem go end am for Botswana. On 14th July 2007, Mogae talk say he go resign nine months later.<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=84&art_id=nw20070715145732985C233999 "Botswana's Mogae set to retire"], AFP (''IOL''), 15 July 2007.</ref> True true, he step down as President on 1st April 2008, and ein Vice-President, Lieutenant General Seretse Khama Ian Khama, take over from am.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> But anyway, he for lef the seat that same 2008, because one law wey dem pass for 1997 talk say president no fit stay more than 10 years for power, whether the years follow each other or dem break inside. Mogae currently serves as Special Envoy of the United Nations Secretary-General on Climate Change.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Special and Personal Representatives and Envoys of the Secretary-General|url=https://www.un.org/sg/srsg/other.shtml|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> In 2010, he joined the advisory board of US nonprofit TeachAids. He also currently serves as chairman of the Choppies supermarket group where he earned Pula 529,000 in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mosikare|first=Oarabile|date=19 October 2012|title=Inequality defines Botswana|url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=231&dir=2012/October/Friday19|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=MmegiOnline}}</ref> "For 2013, Mogae join former Tanzania President Benjamin Mkapa take co-chair one big talk about sustainable development. The event be one symposium wey UONGOZI Institute do together with Club de Madrid<ref>{{cite web|title=Mkapa, Mogae to chair sustainable development meet|url=http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121063833/http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|archive-date=21 November 2013|access-date=19 November 2013|work=Daily News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae is the former President of Botswana, Club de Madrid Member|url=https://clubmadrid.org/who/members/mogae-festus/|access-date=2024-05-21|website=Club de Madrid|language=en-US}}</ref> wey Mkapa too be member inside. == E personal side == Festus Mogae marry Barbara Mogae for 1967. Dem get three daughters — Nametso, Chedza and Boikaego — wey dem born between 1969 and 1987.<ref name="dm">{{cite news|first=Jay|last=Naidoo|title=A leader I would vote for: Botswana's former president Festus Mogae|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2014-04-04-a-leader-i-would-vote-for-botswanas-former-president-festus-mogae/|work=[[Daily Maverick]]|date=4 April 2014|access-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> [[File:Mr_festus_Mogae_being_sworn_in_by_chief_Julian_Nganunu_April_1_1998.jpg|thumb|FFestus Mogae take oath as President on 1st April 1998, Chief Justice Julian Nganunu be the one wey swear am in]] == Awards and Big-Big Respect Wey Dem Give Am == On 20th March 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy give Mogae the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur. E talk say dem give am because of the 'better leadership' wey he show to make Botswana turn example for democracy and good governance. * Presidential Order of Honour of Botswana (1989) * Officier de I’Order Nationale D’e Cote d’Ivoire (1979) * Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws – University of Botswana (September 1998) * I’Order Nationale du Mali and the HATAB's Award for Outstanding Contribution to Botswana's Tourism Industry (1997) * the Global Marketplace Award by the Corporate Council on Africa - Houston, USA (May 1999) * Honorary Fellowship of the Botswana Institute of Bankers – Gaborone, Botswana (July 1999) * Distinguished Achievement Award for AIDS Leadership in Southern Africa by the Medunsa Trust - Washington DC, USA (June 2000) * AIDS Leadership Award by Harvard AIDS Institute – Gaborone (December 2001) * 2002 Congressional Black Caucus Annual Legislative Conference Weekend Chairman's Award – Washington D.C., USA (September 2002) * Africa-America Institute National Leadership Award – New York, USA (September 2002) * Honorary Fellow – University College Oxford (2003) * The Knight Commander of the Most Courteous Order of the Kingdom of Lesotho – Maseru, Lesotho (April 2004) * The Baylor International Pediatric AIDS Initiative (BIPAI) International Leadership Award – Gaborone (October 2004) * The Golden Plate Award by the Academy of Achievement - New York, USA (June 2005) * The Pan African Tsetse and Tryponofomiasis (PATTEC) by the African Union – Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (January 2007) * Doctorate of Humanity by the University of Limkokwing, Gaborone Botswana (January 2008) * The Commander of the Legion d’Honneur Grand Croix of the Republic of France – Paris, France (March 2008) * Taylor and Francis Award for significant contribution to women's development and welfare – Gaborone, Botswana (July 2008) * Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Southern California<ref>{{Cite web|title=Past Recipients – Honorary Degrees|url=https://honorarydegrees.usc.edu/past-recipients/|access-date=2024-06-07|website=honorarydegrees.usc.edu}}</ref> * Croix - Highest award in Madagascar granted to dignitaries of the Nation) Antananarivo, Madagascar (June 2006)[https://www.biust.ac.bw/about-us/chancellor/] For 2008, Mogae win the Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership. The award come with US$5 million wey dem go give am over 10 years, plus US$200,000 every year for the rest of ein life. For London City Hall on 20th October 2008, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk say: 'President Mogae show better leadership wey keep Botswana stable and moving forward, even though HIV/AIDS wahala nearly spoil the future of the country and ein people Plus all that, Mogae get plenty other honours too — like the Naledi Ya Botswana award wey he win for 2003, and the Golden Plate Award from the American Academy of Achievement wey dem give am for 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement|url=https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#public-service|website=www.achievement.org|publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]}}</ref> Since 2010, Mogae dey serve as one of the Trustees for the Rhodes Trust,<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rhodes Trust and Trustees|url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/rhodes-trust/trustees}}</ref> Then for 2016, dem make Mogae Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FESTUS MOGAE (Trustee of the Rhodes Trust)|url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/appointmentsandawards/festus-mogae-trustee-of-the-rhodes-trust|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630052141/http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/appointmentsandawards/festus-mogae-trustee-of-the-rhodes-trust|archive-date=30 June 2016|access-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> [[Category:Living people]] 88m7h234tamg6bqtappdl7lmfg70hdq 63805 63803 2025-06-17T09:17:56Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63805 wikitext text/x-wiki   == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promise say he go fight poverty and joblessness, plus stop the spread of HIV-AIDS. He talk say by 2016, dem go end am for Botswana. On 14th July 2007, Mogae talk say he go resign nine months later.<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=84&art_id=nw20070715145732985C233999 "Botswana's Mogae set to retire"], AFP (''IOL''), 15 July 2007.</ref> True true, he step down as President on 1st April 2008, and ein Vice-President, Lieutenant General Seretse Khama Ian Khama, take over from am.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> But anyway, he for lef the seat that same 2008, because one law wey dem pass for 1997 talk say president no fit stay more than 10 years for power, whether the years follow each other or dem break inside. Mogae currently serves as Special Envoy of the United Nations Secretary-General on Climate Change.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Special and Personal Representatives and Envoys of the Secretary-General|url=https://www.un.org/sg/srsg/other.shtml|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> In 2010, he joined the advisory board of US nonprofit TeachAids. He also currently serves as chairman of the Choppies supermarket group where he earned Pula 529,000 in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mosikare|first=Oarabile|date=19 October 2012|title=Inequality defines Botswana|url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=231&dir=2012/October/Friday19|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=MmegiOnline}}</ref> "For 2013, Mogae join former Tanzania President Benjamin Mkapa take co-chair one big talk about sustainable development. The event be one symposium wey UONGOZI Institute do together with Club de Madrid<ref>{{cite web|title=Mkapa, Mogae to chair sustainable development meet|url=http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121063833/http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|archive-date=21 November 2013|access-date=19 November 2013|work=Daily News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae is the former President of Botswana, Club de Madrid Member|url=https://clubmadrid.org/who/members/mogae-festus/|access-date=2024-05-21|website=Club de Madrid|language=en-US}}</ref> wey Mkapa too be member inside. == E personal side == Festus Mogae marry Barbara Mogae for 1967. Dem get three daughters — Nametso, Chedza and Boikaego — wey dem born between 1969 and 1987.<ref name="dm">{{cite news|first=Jay|last=Naidoo|title=A leader I would vote for: Botswana's former president Festus Mogae|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2014-04-04-a-leader-i-would-vote-for-botswanas-former-president-festus-mogae/|work=[[Daily Maverick]]|date=4 April 2014|access-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> [[File:Mr_festus_Mogae_being_sworn_in_by_chief_Julian_Nganunu_April_1_1998.jpg|thumb|FFestus Mogae take oath as President on 1st April 1998, Chief Justice Julian Nganunu be the one wey swear am in]] == Awards and Big-Big Respect Wey Dem Give Am == On 20th March 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy give Mogae the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur. E talk say dem give am because of the 'better leadership' wey he show to make Botswana turn example for democracy and good governance. * Presidential Order of Honour of Botswana (1989) * Officier de I’Order Nationale D’e Cote d’Ivoire (1979) * Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws – University of Botswana (September 1998) * I’Order Nationale du Mali and the HATAB's Award for Outstanding Contribution to Botswana's Tourism Industry (1997) * the Global Marketplace Award by the Corporate Council on Africa - Houston, USA (May 1999) * Honorary Fellowship of the Botswana Institute of Bankers – Gaborone, Botswana (July 1999) * Distinguished Achievement Award for AIDS Leadership in Southern Africa by the Medunsa Trust - Washington DC, USA (June 2000) * AIDS Leadership Award by Harvard AIDS Institute – Gaborone (December 2001) * 2002 Congressional Black Caucus Annual Legislative Conference Weekend Chairman's Award – Washington D.C., USA (September 2002) * Africa-America Institute National Leadership Award – New York, USA (September 2002) * Honorary Fellow – University College Oxford (2003) * The Knight Commander of the Most Courteous Order of the Kingdom of Lesotho – Maseru, Lesotho (April 2004) * The Baylor International Pediatric AIDS Initiative (BIPAI) International Leadership Award – Gaborone (October 2004) * The Golden Plate Award by the Academy of Achievement - New York, USA (June 2005) * The Pan African Tsetse and Tryponofomiasis (PATTEC) by the African Union – Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (January 2007) * Doctorate of Humanity by the University of Limkokwing, Gaborone Botswana (January 2008) * The Commander of the Legion d’Honneur Grand Croix of the Republic of France – Paris, France (March 2008) * Taylor and Francis Award for significant contribution to women's development and welfare – Gaborone, Botswana (July 2008) * Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Southern California<ref>{{Cite web|title=Past Recipients – Honorary Degrees|url=https://honorarydegrees.usc.edu/past-recipients/|access-date=2024-06-07|website=honorarydegrees.usc.edu}}</ref> * Croix - Highest award in Madagascar granted to dignitaries of the Nation) Antananarivo, Madagascar (June 2006)[https://www.biust.ac.bw/about-us/chancellor/] For 2008, Mogae win the Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership. The award come with US$5 million wey dem go give am over 10 years, plus US$200,000 every year for the rest of ein life. For London City Hall on 20th October 2008, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk say: 'President Mogae show better leadership wey keep Botswana stable and moving forward, even though HIV/AIDS wahala nearly spoil the future of the country and ein people Plus all that, Mogae get plenty other honours too — like the Naledi Ya Botswana award wey he win for 2003, and the Golden Plate Award from the American Academy of Achievement wey dem give am for 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement|url=https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#public-service|website=www.achievement.org|publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]}}</ref> Since 2010, Mogae dey serve as one of the Trustees for the Rhodes Trust,<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rhodes Trust and Trustees|url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/rhodes-trust/trustees}}</ref> Then for 2016, dem make Mogae Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FESTUS MOGAE (Trustee of the Rhodes Trust)|url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/appointmentsandawards/festus-mogae-trustee-of-the-rhodes-trust|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630052141/http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/appointmentsandawards/festus-mogae-trustee-of-the-rhodes-trust|archive-date=30 June 2016|access-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> <references /> [[Category:Living people]] e8lmjv2o0zfg6s821m4unohdxlccm4d 63807 63805 2025-06-17T09:27:17Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287118120|Festus Mogae]]" 63807 wikitext text/x-wiki   Festus Gontebanye Mogae (born 21 August 1939) be Motswana politician and economist wey serve as the third President of Botswana from 1998 go 2008.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/ "Festus Mogae"]. ''African Leadership Academy''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> He take over from Quett Masire as President for 1998<ref>{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae {{!}} president of Botswana|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Festus-Mogae|access-date=2021-06-01|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> Dem vote for am again for October 2004. After he do 10 years for office, he step down for 2008, and Lieutenant General Seretse Khama Ian Khama take over from am.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF "BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE"] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> == E Life Story == === E life starting === Mogae go study economics for UK — first for University College, Oxford, then later for University of Sussex.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Festus MOGAE|url=http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208035907/http://www.africansuccess.org/visuFiche.php?id=572&lang=en|archive-date=8 February 2019|access-date=14 October 2014|website=African Success}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae|url=https://www.africanleadershipacademy.org/staffulty/global-advisory-council/festus-mogae/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=African Leadership Academy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> He come back Botswana come work as government worker (civil servant), before he later get post for International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of Botswana. After that, he serve as governor for Bank of Botswana from 1980 to 1981.<ref name="bankmilestones">{{Cite web|title=Milestones &#124; Bank of Botswana|url=https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones|website=www.bankofbotswana.bw}}</ref> From 1989 go 1998, na he serve as Minister of Finance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us - Ministry of Finance|url=https://www.finance.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=102}}</ref> From 1991 go 1998, he be Botswana ein Vice-President.<ref name=":1" /> Mogae ein party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), still win power for the general election wey happen for October 1999. Dem swear Mogae in for five-year term on 20th October 1999 Chief Justice Julian Nganunu do the swearing-in for National Stadium inside Gaborone.<ref name="Sworn" /> That day, he promise say he go focus on fighting poverty and make sure people get work.<ref name="IRIN" /> After BDP win again for the October 2004 general election, dem swear Mogae in for another term on 2nd November 2004. Mogae promise say he go fight poverty and joblessness, plus stop the spread of HIV-AIDS. He talk say by 2016, dem go end am for Botswana. On 14th July 2007, Mogae talk say he go resign nine months later.<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=84&art_id=nw20070715145732985C233999 "Botswana's Mogae set to retire"], AFP (''IOL''), 15 July 2007.</ref> True true, he step down as President on 1st April 2008, and ein Vice-President, Lieutenant General Seretse Khama Ian Khama, take over from am.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=BIOGRAPHY OF HIS EXCELLENCY MR. FESTUS GONTEBANYE MOGAE|url=https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/30769540-FR-BIOGRAPHY-HE-FESTUS-GONTEBANYE-MOGAE.PDF|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> But anyway, he for lef the seat that same 2008, because one law wey dem pass for 1997 talk say president no fit stay more than 10 years for power, whether the years follow each other or dem break inside. Mogae currently serves as Special Envoy of the United Nations Secretary-General on Climate Change.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Special and Personal Representatives and Envoys of the Secretary-General|url=https://www.un.org/sg/srsg/other.shtml|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> In 2010, he joined the advisory board of US nonprofit TeachAids. He also currently serves as chairman of the Choppies supermarket group where he earned Pula 529,000 in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mosikare|first=Oarabile|date=19 October 2012|title=Inequality defines Botswana|url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=231&dir=2012/October/Friday19|access-date=19 October 2012|publisher=MmegiOnline}}</ref> "For 2013, Mogae join former Tanzania President Benjamin Mkapa take co-chair one big talk about sustainable development. The event be one symposium wey UONGOZI Institute do together with Club de Madrid<ref>{{cite web|title=Mkapa, Mogae to chair sustainable development meet|url=http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121063833/http://www.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/local-news/24856-mkapa-mogae-to-chair-sustainable-development-meet|archive-date=21 November 2013|access-date=19 November 2013|work=Daily News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Festus Mogae is the former President of Botswana, Club de Madrid Member|url=https://clubmadrid.org/who/members/mogae-festus/|access-date=2024-05-21|website=Club de Madrid|language=en-US}}</ref> wey Mkapa too be member inside. == E personal side == Festus Mogae marry Barbara Mogae for 1967. Dem get three daughters — Nametso, Chedza and Boikaego — wey dem born between 1969 and 1987.<ref name="dm">{{cite news|first=Jay|last=Naidoo|title=A leader I would vote for: Botswana's former president Festus Mogae|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2014-04-04-a-leader-i-would-vote-for-botswanas-former-president-festus-mogae/|work=[[Daily Maverick]]|date=4 April 2014|access-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> [[File:Mr_festus_Mogae_being_sworn_in_by_chief_Julian_Nganunu_April_1_1998.jpg|thumb|FFestus Mogae take oath as President on 1st April 1998, Chief Justice Julian Nganunu be the one wey swear am in]] == Awards and Big-Big Respect Wey Dem Give Am == On 20th March 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy give Mogae the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur. E talk say dem give am because of the 'better leadership' wey he show to make Botswana turn example for democracy and good governance. * Presidential Order of Honour of Botswana (1989) * Officier de I’Order Nationale D’e Cote d’Ivoire (1979) * Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws – University of Botswana (September 1998) * I’Order Nationale du Mali and the HATAB's Award for Outstanding Contribution to Botswana's Tourism Industry (1997) * the Global Marketplace Award by the Corporate Council on Africa - Houston, USA (May 1999) * Honorary Fellowship of the Botswana Institute of Bankers – Gaborone, Botswana (July 1999) * Distinguished Achievement Award for AIDS Leadership in Southern Africa by the Medunsa Trust - Washington DC, USA (June 2000) * AIDS Leadership Award by Harvard AIDS Institute – Gaborone (December 2001) * 2002 Congressional Black Caucus Annual Legislative Conference Weekend Chairman's Award – Washington D.C., USA (September 2002) * Africa-America Institute National Leadership Award – New York, USA (September 2002) * Honorary Fellow – University College Oxford (2003) * The Knight Commander of the Most Courteous Order of the Kingdom of Lesotho – Maseru, Lesotho (April 2004) * The Baylor International Pediatric AIDS Initiative (BIPAI) International Leadership Award – Gaborone (October 2004) * The Golden Plate Award by the Academy of Achievement - New York, USA (June 2005) * The Pan African Tsetse and Tryponofomiasis (PATTEC) by the African Union – Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (January 2007) * Doctorate of Humanity by the University of Limkokwing, Gaborone Botswana (January 2008) * The Commander of the Legion d’Honneur Grand Croix of the Republic of France – Paris, France (March 2008) * Taylor and Francis Award for significant contribution to women's development and welfare – Gaborone, Botswana (July 2008) * Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Southern California<ref>{{Cite web|title=Past Recipients – Honorary Degrees|url=https://honorarydegrees.usc.edu/past-recipients/|access-date=2024-06-07|website=honorarydegrees.usc.edu}}</ref> * Croix - Highest award in Madagascar granted to dignitaries of the Nation) Antananarivo, Madagascar (June 2006)[https://www.biust.ac.bw/about-us/chancellor/] For 2008, Mogae win the Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership. The award come with US$5 million wey dem go give am over 10 years, plus US$200,000 every year for the rest of ein life. For London City Hall on 20th October 2008, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk say: 'President Mogae show better leadership wey keep Botswana stable and moving forward, even though HIV/AIDS wahala nearly spoil the future of the country and ein people Plus all that, Mogae get plenty other honours too — like the Naledi Ya Botswana award wey he win for 2003, and the Golden Plate Award from the American Academy of Achievement wey dem give am for 2005<ref>{{cite web|title=Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement|url=https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#public-service|website=www.achievement.org|publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]}}</ref>.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement|url=https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#public-service|website=www.achievement.org|publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]}}</ref> Since 2010, Mogae dey serve as one of the Trustees for the Rhodes Trust,<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rhodes Trust and Trustees|url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/rhodes-trust/trustees}}</ref> Then for 2016, dem make Mogae Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FESTUS MOGAE (Trustee of the Rhodes Trust)|url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/appointmentsandawards/festus-mogae-trustee-of-the-rhodes-trust|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630052141/http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/appointmentsandawards/festus-mogae-trustee-of-the-rhodes-trust|archive-date=30 June 2016|access-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> <references /> * Media related to Festus Mogae at Wikimedia Commons * Appearances on C-SPAN {{S-start}} {{s-off}} {{succession box|title=[[Vice-President of Botswana]]|before=[[Peter Mmusi]]|after=[[Ian Khama]]|years=1991–1998}} {{succession box|title=[[President of Botswana]]|before=[[Quett Masire]]|after=[[Ian Khama]]|years=1998–2008}} {{s-ach}} {{succession box|title=[[Ibrahim Prize|Prize for Achievement in African Leadership]]|before=[[Joaquim Chissano]]|after=[[Pedro Pires]]|years=2008}} {{S-end}}{{S-start}} {{s-off}} {{succession box|title=[[Vice-President of Botswana]]|before=[[Peter Mmusi]]|after=[[Ian Khama]]|years=1991–1998}} {{succession box|title=[[President of Botswana]]|before=[[Quett Masire]]|after=[[Ian Khama]]|years=1998–2008}} {{s-ach}} {{succession box|title=[[Ibrahim Prize|Prize for Achievement in African Leadership]]|before=[[Joaquim Chissano]]|after=[[Pedro Pires]]|years=2008}} {{S-end}} [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:21st-century Botswana politicians]] [[Category:Botswana expatriates in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:20th-century Botswana politicians]] [[Category:Botswana Democratic Party politicians]] [[Category:Governors of the Bank of Botswana]] c7q6crwwysgjuk123a7zd4sr8odrjnu 0 17411 63809 2025-06-17T09:37:41Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1225098107|Abdelhak Benhamouda]]" 63809 wikitext text/x-wiki Abdelhak Benhamouda (born 12 December 1946 for Constantine – die 28 January 1997) be Algerian trade union leader. From 1990 till dem kill am for 1997, he be secretary-general for General Union of Algerian Workers (UGTA). Dem say some anti-socialist Islamist people be the ones wey assassinate am. == E Personal Journey == pu6chyioab6eh8asqv4hh4qlilbznz3 63811 63809 2025-06-17T09:40:53Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1225098107|Abdelhak Benhamouda]]" 63811 wikitext text/x-wiki Abdelhak Benhamouda (born 12 December 1946 for Constantine – die 28 January 1997) be Algerian trade union leader. From 1990 till dem kill am for 1997, he be secretary-general for General Union of Algerian Workers (UGTA). Dem say some anti-socialist Islamist people be the ones wey assassinate am. == E Personal Journey == Abdelhak Benhamouda be one of the people wey help start the Algerian political party wey dem dey call National Rally for Democracy (RND<ref name="algeriewatch capitale">{{in lang|fr}} [https://algeria-watch.org/?p=21473 Les assassins de Benhamouda condamnés à la peine capitale par contumace] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927005442/https://algeria-watch.org/?p=21473|date=2018-09-27}}, ''Algerie-watch.org'', 13 December 2009</ref>. For 1993, some people try shoot Abdelhak Benhamouda as he comot from him house for Kouba. Then the next year, dem kill ein brother and uncle by shooting dem for Constantine<ref name="humanite assassine">{{in lang|fr}} [https://www.humanite.fr/node/149690 Abdelhak Benhamouda assassiné] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927005410/https://www.humanite.fr/node/149690|date=2018-09-27}}, ''Humanite.fr'', 29 January 1997</ref>. 4fkbkhbdwrivrowfi9mucxlw04gdfoa 63812 63811 2025-06-17T09:43:56Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1225098107|Abdelhak Benhamouda]]" 63812 wikitext text/x-wiki Abdelhak Benhamouda (born 12 December 1946 for Constantine – die 28 January 1997) be Algerian trade union leader. From 1990 till dem kill am for 1997, he be secretary-general for General Union of Algerian Workers (UGTA). Dem say some anti-socialist Islamist people be the ones wey assassinate am. == E Personal Journey == Abdelhak Benhamouda be one of the people wey help start the Algerian political party wey dem dey call National Rally for Democracy (RND<ref name="algeriewatch capitale">{{in lang|fr}} [https://algeria-watch.org/?p=21473 Les assassins de Benhamouda condamnés à la peine capitale par contumace] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927005442/https://algeria-watch.org/?p=21473|date=2018-09-27}}, ''Algerie-watch.org'', 13 December 2009</ref>. For 1993, some people try shoot Abdelhak Benhamouda as he comot from him house for Kouba. Then the next year, dem kill ein brother and uncle by shooting dem for Constantine<ref name="humanite assassine">{{in lang|fr}} [https://www.humanite.fr/node/149690 Abdelhak Benhamouda assassiné] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927005410/https://www.humanite.fr/node/149690|date=2018-09-27}}, ''Humanite.fr'', 29 January 1997</ref>. On 28th January 1997, some gunmen shoot Abdelhak Benhamouda for the parking lot of Maison du peuple — wey be UGTA dem headquarters. Even though he carry gun, he fit pull am and wound one of the attackers before he fall. Ein bodyguard and driver, Omar, die too for the shooting. As he dey die inside ein friend ein arms, dem say he whisper, 'Kamel, my brother, dem betray we.' For the 1997 report wey talk about the matter, dem say four people take part for the attack<ref name="humanite assassine" />. For 2005, one Algerian court sentence five people wey dem believe say kill Benhamouda to death<ref name="algeriewatch capitale" />. 368l7454yns621rkffz5z71xf1gcdxg 63813 63812 2025-06-17T09:44:31Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1225098107|Abdelhak Benhamouda]]" 63813 wikitext text/x-wiki Abdelhak Benhamouda (born 12 December 1946 for Constantine – die 28 January 1997) be Algerian trade union leader. From 1990 till dem kill am for 1997, he be secretary-general for General Union of Algerian Workers (UGTA). Dem say some anti-socialist Islamist people be the ones wey assassinate am. == E Personal Journey == Abdelhak Benhamouda be one of the people wey help start the Algerian political party wey dem dey call National Rally for Democracy (RND<ref name="algeriewatch capitale">{{in lang|fr}} [https://algeria-watch.org/?p=21473 Les assassins de Benhamouda condamnés à la peine capitale par contumace] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927005442/https://algeria-watch.org/?p=21473|date=2018-09-27}}, ''Algerie-watch.org'', 13 December 2009</ref>. For 1993, some people try shoot Abdelhak Benhamouda as he comot from him house for Kouba. Then the next year, dem kill ein brother and uncle by shooting dem for Constantine<ref name="humanite assassine">{{in lang|fr}} [https://www.humanite.fr/node/149690 Abdelhak Benhamouda assassiné] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927005410/https://www.humanite.fr/node/149690|date=2018-09-27}}, ''Humanite.fr'', 29 January 1997</ref>. On 28th January 1997, some gunmen shoot Abdelhak Benhamouda for the parking lot of Maison du peuple — wey be UGTA dem headquarters. Even though he carry gun, he fit pull am and wound one of the attackers before he fall. Ein bodyguard and driver, Omar, die too for the shooting. As he dey die inside ein friend ein arms, dem say he whisper, 'Kamel, my brother, dem betray we.' For the 1997 report wey talk about the matter, dem say four people take part for the attack<ref name="humanite assassine" />. For 2005, one Algerian court sentence five people wey dem believe say kill Benhamouda to death<ref name="algeriewatch capitale" />. == References == <references /> jmagajs8pu0usoaxa179trdksgypzqd 0 17412 63815 2025-06-17T09:53:23Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63815 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda was born into a family of farmers, and was adopted and educated by Roman Catholic missionaries after the death of his parents. In 1938, he was ordained as a Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, Boganda served in a number of missions and afterwards was persuaded by the Bishop of Bangui to enter politics. In 1946, he became the first Oubanguian elected to the National Assembly of France, where he spoke out against racism and the abuses of the colonial regime. He then returned to Oubangui-Chari to form a political organisation, culminating in the 1949 foundation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN), which became popular among villagers and the peasantry. Boganda was laicized from the priesthood after developing a relationship with and eventually marrying Michelle Jourdain, a parliamentary secretary. Nonetheless, he continued to advocate for equal treatment and fundamental rights for blacks in the territory well into the 1950s. As France conceded measures of representation to its colonies, MESAN won local elections and he gained influence in Oubangui-Chari's government, though his reputation suffered when he backed an unsuccessful economic scheme. [[Category:1910 births]] bitptgabeuog0qfoa3fn68divb0g6ds 63816 63815 2025-06-17T09:56:15Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63816 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda born into farmer family, but after ein mama and papa die, Roman Catholic missionaries carry am adopt and train am. For 1938, he become Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, he do plenty missionary work, then after the war, the Bishop of Bangui talk make he join politics. For 1946, Boganda become the first person from Oubangui wey dem elect go French National Assembly. There, he talk against racism and the bad way colonial people dey treat Africans. He then returned to Oubangui-Chari to form a political organisation, culminating in the 1949 foundation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN), which became popular among villagers and the peasantry. Boganda was laicized from the priesthood after developing a relationship with and eventually marrying Michelle Jourdain, a parliamentary secretary. Nonetheless, he continued to advocate for equal treatment and fundamental rights for blacks in the territory well into the 1950s. As France conceded measures of representation to its colonies, MESAN won local elections and he gained influence in Oubangui-Chari's government, though his reputation suffered when he backed an unsuccessful economic scheme. [[Category:1910 births]] pmmk7um7rdu8hzml41m6kxyl4eaepon 63817 63816 2025-06-17T09:57:37Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63817 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda born into farmer family, but after ein mama and papa die, Roman Catholic missionaries carry am adopt and train am. For 1938, he become Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, he do plenty missionary work, then after the war, the Bishop of Bangui talk make he join politics. For 1946, Boganda become the first person from Oubangui wey dem elect go French National Assembly. There, he talk against racism and the bad way colonial people dey treat Africans. After that, Boganda go back Oubangui-Chari go start ein own political group. This move lead to the creation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) for 1949. The party become very popular with the village people and farmers. Later, Boganda stop being priest because he fall in love and marry one parliamentary secretary woman wey dem call Michelle Jourdain. Even after that, he still fight hard make black people get equal rights and better life for the territory throughout the 1950s. As France conceded measures of representation to its colonies, MESAN won local elections and he gained influence in Oubangui-Chari's government, though his reputation suffered when he backed an unsuccessful economic scheme. [[Category:1910 births]] 5kzc9629rthdbpurb1oxhplxa3m3dr7 63818 63817 2025-06-17T10:00:09Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63818 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda born into farmer family, but after ein mama and papa die, Roman Catholic missionaries carry am adopt and train am. For 1938, he become Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, he do plenty missionary work, then after the war, the Bishop of Bangui talk make he join politics. For 1946, Boganda become the first person from Oubangui wey dem elect go French National Assembly. There, he talk against racism and the bad way colonial people dey treat Africans. After that, Boganda go back Oubangui-Chari go start ein own political group. This move lead to the creation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) for 1949. The party become very popular with the village people and farmers. Later, Boganda stop being priest because he fall in love and marry one parliamentary secretary woman wey dem call Michelle Jourdain. Even after that, he still fight hard make black people get equal rights and better life for the territory throughout the 1950s. As France begin give small-small chance for dem colonies to get representation, MESAN win local elections and Boganda get more power inside Oubangui-Chari ein government. But e reputation chop small dent when he support one economic plan wey no work out. [[Category:1910 births]] f7es5ccleg890502b5xgseif5pb5pfp 63819 63818 2025-06-17T10:01:53Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63819 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda born into farmer family, but after ein mama and papa die, Roman Catholic missionaries carry am adopt and train am. For 1938, he become Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, he do plenty missionary work, then after the war, the Bishop of Bangui talk make he join politics. For 1946, Boganda become the first person from Oubangui wey dem elect go French National Assembly. There, he talk against racism and the bad way colonial people dey treat Africans. After that, Boganda go back Oubangui-Chari go start ein own political group. This move lead to the creation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) for 1949. The party become very popular with the village people and farmers. Later, Boganda stop being priest because he fall in love and marry one parliamentary secretary woman wey dem call Michelle Jourdain. Even after that, he still fight hard make black people get equal rights and better life for the territory throughout the 1950s. As France begin give small-small chance for dem colonies to get representation, MESAN win local elections and Boganda get more power inside Oubangui-Chari ein government. But e reputation chop small dent when he support one economic plan wey no work out. For 1958, French Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle bring idea say make all France dem colonies join something called the French Community, so dem fit still connect with France. After dem assure Boganda say if Oubangui-Chari join, e no go block dem from getting full independence later, he support the idea make dem join. He sought to do so as part of a federation with other territories in French Equatorial Africa as a "Central African Republic", which he believed would bolster the financial situation of the member states. He hoped this would serve as the basis for a United States of Latin Africa, a conglomeration including other countries in central Africa. This never came to fruition, and on 1 December, Boganda declared the establishment of the Central African Republic for only Oubangui-Chari. Boganda became the autonomous territory's first premier as the President of the Council of Government, and began drawing up administrative reforms and preparing for the next election. He was killed in a plane crash on 29 March 1959, while en route to Bangui. Experts found a trace of explosives in the plane's wreckage, but a full report on the incident was never published, and the possibility of an assassination remains unresolved. The Central African Republic attained formal independence from France in 1960. Boganda's death is annually commemorated in the country, and his presence in the national collective memory remains politically potent. [[Category:1910 births]] 4exizsusdfii8djq9nm8pesetlbzw76 63820 63819 2025-06-17T10:03:26Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63820 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda born into farmer family, but after ein mama and papa die, Roman Catholic missionaries carry am adopt and train am. For 1938, he become Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, he do plenty missionary work, then after the war, the Bishop of Bangui talk make he join politics. For 1946, Boganda become the first person from Oubangui wey dem elect go French National Assembly. There, he talk against racism and the bad way colonial people dey treat Africans. After that, Boganda go back Oubangui-Chari go start ein own political group. This move lead to the creation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) for 1949. The party become very popular with the village people and farmers. Later, Boganda stop being priest because he fall in love and marry one parliamentary secretary woman wey dem call Michelle Jourdain. Even after that, he still fight hard make black people get equal rights and better life for the territory throughout the 1950s. As France begin give small-small chance for dem colonies to get representation, MESAN win local elections and Boganda get more power inside Oubangui-Chari ein government. But e reputation chop small dent when he support one economic plan wey no work out. For 1958, French Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle bring idea say make all France dem colonies join something called the French Community, so dem fit still connect with France. After dem assure Boganda say if Oubangui-Chari join, e no go block dem from getting full independence later, he support the idea make dem join. Boganda want make dem no just go solo, but form one big union with other French Equatorial Africa territories, wey he call 'Central African Republic'. He believe say if dem join like that, e go help boost money and development for all dem member states. He dream say the union go later grow into something big like 'United States of Latin Africa' — wey go include other central African countries. But that plan no work out. So on 1st December, he declare say only Oubangui-Chari go turn Central African Republic. Then he become the first Premier of the new autonomous territory as President of the Council of Government. From there, he start put reforms down and prepare for the next elections. He was killed in a plane crash on 29 March 1959, while en route to Bangui. Experts found a trace of explosives in the plane's wreckage, but a full report on the incident was never published, and the possibility of an assassination remains unresolved. The Central African Republic attained formal independence from France in 1960. Boganda's death is annually commemorated in the country, and his presence in the national collective memory remains politically potent. [[Category:1910 births]] 98g3ldlcuutm2d1nnsb42i21qzlpvxj 63822 63820 2025-06-17T10:04:39Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63822 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda born into farmer family, but after ein mama and papa die, Roman Catholic missionaries carry am adopt and train am. For 1938, he become Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, he do plenty missionary work, then after the war, the Bishop of Bangui talk make he join politics. For 1946, Boganda become the first person from Oubangui wey dem elect go French National Assembly. There, he talk against racism and the bad way colonial people dey treat Africans. After that, Boganda go back Oubangui-Chari go start ein own political group. This move lead to the creation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) for 1949. The party become very popular with the village people and farmers. Later, Boganda stop being priest because he fall in love and marry one parliamentary secretary woman wey dem call Michelle Jourdain. Even after that, he still fight hard make black people get equal rights and better life for the territory throughout the 1950s. As France begin give small-small chance for dem colonies to get representation, MESAN win local elections and Boganda get more power inside Oubangui-Chari ein government. But e reputation chop small dent when he support one economic plan wey no work out. For 1958, French Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle bring idea say make all France dem colonies join something called the French Community, so dem fit still connect with France. After dem assure Boganda say if Oubangui-Chari join, e no go block dem from getting full independence later, he support the idea make dem join. Boganda want make dem no just go solo, but form one big union with other French Equatorial Africa territories, wey he call 'Central African Republic'. He believe say if dem join like that, e go help boost money and development for all dem member states. He dream say the union go later grow into something big like 'United States of Latin Africa' — wey go include other central African countries. But that plan no work out. So on 1st December, he declare say only Oubangui-Chari go turn Central African Republic. Then he become the first Premier of the new autonomous territory as President of the Council of Government. From there, he start put reforms down and prepare for the next elections.Boganda die inside one plane crash on 29 March 1959 as he dey travel go Bangui. Dem experts find say small trace of bomb dey the plane ein wreckage, but up till now, no full report come out about the matter, so people still no sure whether dem kill am or e be accident. The Central African Republic come get full independence from France for 1960. Every year, dem dey remember Boganda ein death, and ein name still carry strong power for the country ein political memory. [[Category:1910 births]] 7jgqg2hq13nw1952lui58w9ntucklr4 63827 63822 2025-06-17T10:18:49Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63827 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda born into farmer family, but after ein mama and papa die, Roman Catholic missionaries carry am adopt and train am. For 1938, he become Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, he do plenty missionary work, then after the war, the Bishop of Bangui talk make he join politics. For 1946, Boganda become the first person from Oubangui wey dem elect go French National Assembly. There, he talk against racism and the bad way colonial people dey treat Africans. After that, Boganda go back Oubangui-Chari go start ein own political group. This move lead to the creation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) for 1949. The party become very popular with the village people and farmers. Later, Boganda stop being priest because he fall in love and marry one parliamentary secretary woman wey dem call Michelle Jourdain. Even after that, he still fight hard make black people get equal rights and better life for the territory throughout the 1950s. As France begin give small-small chance for dem colonies to get representation, MESAN win local elections and Boganda get more power inside Oubangui-Chari ein government. But e reputation chop small dent when he support one economic plan wey no work out. For 1958, French Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle bring idea say make all France dem colonies join something called the French Community, so dem fit still connect with France. After dem assure Boganda say if Oubangui-Chari join, e no go block dem from getting full independence later, he support the idea make dem join. Boganda want make dem no just go solo, but form one big union with other French Equatorial Africa territories, wey he call 'Central African Republic'. He believe say if dem join like that, e go help boost money and development for all dem member states. He dream say the union go later grow into something big like 'United States of Latin Africa' — wey go include other central African countries. But that plan no work out. So on 1st December, he declare say only Oubangui-Chari go turn Central African Republic. Then he become the first Premier of the new autonomous territory as President of the Council of Government. From there, he start put reforms down and prepare for the next elections.Boganda die inside one plane crash on 29 March 1959 as he dey travel go Bangui. Dem experts find say small trace of bomb dey the plane ein wreckage, but up till now, no full report come out about the matter, so people still no sure whether dem kill am or e be accident. The Central African Republic come get full independence from France for 1960. Every year, dem dey remember Boganda ein death, and ein name still carry strong power for the country ein political memory. == Ein life starting == Little is known about Boganda's early life. Dem born am around the year 1910 to a family of farmers in Bobangui, Dem born am for one big M'Baka village inside the Lobaye basin, wey dey near the edge of the equatorial forest, about 80 kilometers (50 miles) southwest of Bangui His father, Swalakpé, was a village head and the wealthy owner of several palm plantations who had taken numerous wives. Boganda's mother, Siribé, was Swalakpé's third wife.[8][9] French commercial exploitation of Central Africa had reached an apogee around the time of Boganda's birth, and although interrupted by World War I, activity resumed in the 1920s. The French consortia used what was essentially a form of slavery—the ''corvée''—and one of the most notorious was the Compagnie Forestière de la Haute Sangha-Oubangui (CFSO), involved in rubber gathering in the Lobaye district.[10] Coercive labour practices, violence, and disease had severely disrupted traditional society by the time Boganda was born. Bobangui was particularly affected by these elements.[11] His uncle, whose son, Jean-Bédel Bokassa, would later crown himself as the Emperor of the Central African Empire, was beaten to death at a colonial police station as a result of his alleged resistance to work.[12] Both of Boganda's parents died when he was young; his father was reportedly killed in a punitive campaign conducted by colonial forces shortly after his birth. His mother died before 1915, probably having been murdered by a CFSO militiaman for not having met a rubber collection quota. Boganda was then given to the care of a guardian who joined the French Army during World War I and was killed at the Battle of Verdun.[8] He was subsequently placed in the tutelage of other relatives, and in 1920 he contracted smallpox. In June his brother was instructed to take him to an uncle, and along the way they encountered a French patrol led by a Lieutenant Mayer. His brother fled out of fear. Left alone, Boganda said, "Gboganda". This was probably a Ngbaka phrase meaning "I am [from] elsewhere", and he was probably hoping to explain that he was lost. The soldiers believed this was his name, rendering it "Boganda", and the name was used for the rest of his life.[13][b] Mayer took him to the orphanage in the nearby town of Mbaïki. Once there, a Spiritan missionary touring the area decided to take him to the mission station of Saint Jean Baptiste in Bétou, a town further south on the Ubangi River which was home to a school.[14] [[Category:1910 births]] 844hwv63zh4wwi7htiuxu06909g9py1 63831 63827 2025-06-17T10:46:07Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63831 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda born into farmer family, but after ein mama and papa die, Roman Catholic missionaries carry am adopt and train am. For 1938, he become Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, he do plenty missionary work, then after the war, the Bishop of Bangui talk make he join politics. For 1946, Boganda become the first person from Oubangui wey dem elect go French National Assembly. There, he talk against racism and the bad way colonial people dey treat Africans. After that, Boganda go back Oubangui-Chari go start ein own political group. This move lead to the creation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) for 1949. The party become very popular with the village people and farmers. Later, Boganda stop being priest because he fall in love and marry one parliamentary secretary woman wey dem call Michelle Jourdain. Even after that, he still fight hard make black people get equal rights and better life for the territory throughout the 1950s. As France begin give small-small chance for dem colonies to get representation, MESAN win local elections and Boganda get more power inside Oubangui-Chari ein government. But e reputation chop small dent when he support one economic plan wey no work out. For 1958, French Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle bring idea say make all France dem colonies join something called the French Community, so dem fit still connect with France. After dem assure Boganda say if Oubangui-Chari join, e no go block dem from getting full independence later, he support the idea make dem join. Boganda want make dem no just go solo, but form one big union with other French Equatorial Africa territories, wey he call 'Central African Republic'. He believe say if dem join like that, e go help boost money and development for all dem member states. He dream say the union go later grow into something big like 'United States of Latin Africa' — wey go include other central African countries. But that plan no work out. So on 1st December, he declare say only Oubangui-Chari go turn Central African Republic. Then he become the first Premier of the new autonomous territory as President of the Council of Government. From there, he start put reforms down and prepare for the next elections.Boganda die inside one plane crash on 29 March 1959 as he dey travel go Bangui. Dem experts find say small trace of bomb dey the plane ein wreckage, but up till now, no full report come out about the matter, so people still no sure whether dem kill am or e be accident. The Central African Republic come get full independence from France for 1960. Every year, dem dey remember Boganda ein death, and ein name still carry strong power for the country ein political memory. == Ein life starting == Little is known about Boganda's early life.<ref>van Walraven</ref> Dem born am around the year 1910 to a family of farmers in Bobangui, Dem born am for one big M'Baka village inside the Lobaye basin, wey dey near the edge of the equatorial forest, about 80 kilometers (50 miles) southwest of. Boganda ein papa, Swalakpé, be village chief and rich man wey get plenty palm plantations, plus he marry many women. Boganda ein mama, Siribé, be the third wife. Around the time dem born Boganda, French people dey exploit Central Africa strong — dem dey do big-big business, especially rubber, and dem dey force people work like slaves under one system called corvée. One of the worst companies wey do this thing be Compagnie Forestière de la Haute Sangha-Oubangui (CFSO), wey dey operate for the Lobaye area. Dem force people work, beat dem, and because of that, many people get sick or die, and traditional life spoil. Boganda ein village, Bobangui, suffer this thing well-well. Even ein uncle — wey ein son Jean-Bédel Bokassa later call himself Emperor — dem beat am die for colonial police station because dem say he no wan work Both of Boganda's parents died when he was young; his father was reportedly killed in a punitive campaign conducted by colonial forces shortly after his birth. His mother died before 1915, probably having been murdered by a CFSO militiaman for not having met a rubber collection quota. Boganda was then given to the care of a guardian who joined the French Army during World War I and was killed at the Battle of Verdun.[8] He was subsequently placed in the tutelage of other relatives, and in 1920 he contracted smallpox. In June his brother was instructed to take him to an uncle, and along the way they encountered a French patrol led by a Lieutenant Mayer. His brother fled out of fear. Left alone, Boganda said, "Gboganda". This was probably a Ngbaka phrase meaning "I am [from] elsewhere", and he was probably hoping to explain that he was lost. The soldiers believed this was his name, rendering it "Boganda", and the name was used for the rest of his life.[13][b] Mayer took him to the orphanage in the nearby town of Mbaïki. Once there, a Spiritan missionary touring the area decided to take him to the mission station of Saint Jean Baptiste in Bétou, a town further south on the Ubangi River which was home to a school.[14] [[Category:1910 births]] 0ja4gb6iz4bsnt0qd1q2qlu4bwgfadc 63832 63831 2025-06-17T10:48:25Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63832 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda born into farmer family, but after ein mama and papa die, Roman Catholic missionaries carry am adopt and train am. For 1938, he become Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, he do plenty missionary work, then after the war, the Bishop of Bangui talk make he join politics. For 1946, Boganda become the first person from Oubangui wey dem elect go French National Assembly. There, he talk against racism and the bad way colonial people dey treat Africans. After that, Boganda go back Oubangui-Chari go start ein own political group. This move lead to the creation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) for 1949. The party become very popular with the village people and farmers. Later, Boganda stop being priest because he fall in love and marry one parliamentary secretary woman wey dem call Michelle Jourdain. Even after that, he still fight hard make black people get equal rights and better life for the territory throughout the 1950s. As France begin give small-small chance for dem colonies to get representation, MESAN win local elections and Boganda get more power inside Oubangui-Chari ein government. But e reputation chop small dent when he support one economic plan wey no work out. For 1958, French Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle bring idea say make all France dem colonies join something called the French Community, so dem fit still connect with France. After dem assure Boganda say if Oubangui-Chari join, e no go block dem from getting full independence later, he support the idea make dem join. Boganda want make dem no just go solo, but form one big union with other French Equatorial Africa territories, wey he call 'Central African Republic'. He believe say if dem join like that, e go help boost money and development for all dem member states. He dream say the union go later grow into something big like 'United States of Latin Africa' — wey go include other central African countries. But that plan no work out. So on 1st December, he declare say only Oubangui-Chari go turn Central African Republic. Then he become the first Premier of the new autonomous territory as President of the Council of Government. From there, he start put reforms down and prepare for the next elections.Boganda die inside one plane crash on 29 March 1959 as he dey travel go Bangui. Dem experts find say small trace of bomb dey the plane ein wreckage, but up till now, no full report come out about the matter, so people still no sure whether dem kill am or e be accident. The Central African Republic come get full independence from France for 1960. Every year, dem dey remember Boganda ein death, and ein name still carry strong power for the country ein political memory. == Ein life starting == Little is known about Boganda's early life.<ref>van Walraven</ref> Dem born am around the year 1910 to a family of farmers in Bobangui, Dem born am for one big M'Baka village inside the Lobaye basin, wey dey near the edge of the equatorial forest, about 80 kilometers (50 miles) southwest of. Boganda ein papa, Swalakpé, be village chief and rich man wey get plenty palm plantations, plus he marry many women. Boganda ein mama, Siribé, be the third wife. Around the time dem born Boganda, French people dey exploit Central Africa strong — dem dey do big-big business, especially rubber, and dem dey force people work like slaves under one system called corvée. One of the worst companies wey do this thing be Compagnie Forestière de la Haute Sangha-Oubangui (CFSO), wey dey operate for the Lobaye area. Dem force people work, beat dem, and because of that, many people get sick or die, and traditional life spoil. Boganda ein village, Bobangui, suffer this thing well-well. Even ein uncle — wey ein son Jean-Bédel Bokassa later call himself Emperor — dem beat am die for colonial police station because dem say he no wan work Boganda lose both him mama and papa when he still small. Dem talk say ein papa die shortly after he born, as colonial soldiers do punishment attack for the area. Ein mama too die before 1915 — some people talk say one CFSO soldier kill her because she no bring the amount of rubber dem want. After that, dem give Boganda to one guardian, but the man join French Army during World War I and die for the big Battle of Verdun. After that, dem give Boganda to some other family members to take care of am. For 1920, he catch smallpox. One time, dem send ein brother make he carry am go meet one uncle, but for road top, dem jam French soldiers wey one Lieutenant Mayer dey lead. Ein brother run out of fear, so Boganda lef alone. As he try talk say he be stranger or he lost, he talk 'Gboganda' — wey be Ngbaka word wey fit mean 'I be from somewhere else'. The soldiers think say that be ein name, so dem start dey call am 'Boganda', and that be the name he use for the rest of ein life. Lieutenant Mayer carry am go orphanage for one nearby town called Mbaïki. Later, one Spiritan missionary wey dey tour the area see am and carry am go mission station for Saint Jean Baptiste inside Bétou — one town wey dey further south along the Ubangi River, and e get school there [[Category:1910 births]] i0dx3amgjlu1l9fpw1jok8aji35hc08 63833 63832 2025-06-17T10:51:15Z Iphone thirteen 1764 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1282837396|Barthélemy Boganda]]" 63833 wikitext text/x-wiki   Barthélemy Boganda (born around 1910 – die 29 March 1959) be Central African politician and freedom fighter. Before ein country get independence, he dey active for the time wey the place wey be part of French Equatorial Africa — dey under French control as Oubangui-Chari. He be the first Premier (head of government) for Central African Republic when the place turn autonomous territory. Boganda born into farmer family, but after ein mama and papa die, Roman Catholic missionaries carry am adopt and train am. For 1938, he become Roman Catholic priest. During World War II, he do plenty missionary work, then after the war, the Bishop of Bangui talk make he join politics. For 1946, Boganda become the first person from Oubangui wey dem elect go French National Assembly. There, he talk against racism and the bad way colonial people dey treat Africans. After that, Boganda go back Oubangui-Chari go start ein own political group. This move lead to the creation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) for 1949. The party become very popular with the village people and farmers. Later, Boganda stop being priest because he fall in love and marry one parliamentary secretary woman wey dem call Michelle Jourdain. Even after that, he still fight hard make black people get equal rights and better life for the territory throughout the 1950s. As France begin give small-small chance for dem colonies to get representation, MESAN win local elections and Boganda get more power inside Oubangui-Chari ein government. But e reputation chop small dent when he support one economic plan wey no work out. For 1958, French Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle bring idea say make all France dem colonies join something called the French Community, so dem fit still connect with France. After dem assure Boganda say if Oubangui-Chari join, e no go block dem from getting full independence later, he support the idea make dem join. Boganda want make dem no just go solo, but form one big union with other French Equatorial Africa territories, wey he call 'Central African Republic'. He believe say if dem join like that, e go help boost money and development for all dem member states. He dream say the union go later grow into something big like 'United States of Latin Africa' — wey go include other central African countries. But that plan no work out. So on 1st December, he declare say only Oubangui-Chari go turn Central African Republic. Then he become the first Premier of the new autonomous territory as President of the Council of Government. From there, he start put reforms down and prepare for the next elections.Boganda die inside one plane crash on 29 March 1959 as he dey travel go Bangui. Dem experts find say small trace of bomb dey the plane ein wreckage, but up till now, no full report come out about the matter, so people still no sure whether dem kill am or e be accident. The Central African Republic come get full independence from France for 1960. Every year, dem dey remember Boganda ein death, and ein name still carry strong power for the country ein political memory. == Ein life starting == Little is known about Boganda's early life.<ref>van Walraven</ref> Dem born am around the year 1910 to a family of farmers in Bobangui, Dem born am for one big M'Baka village inside the Lobaye basin, wey dey near the edge of the equatorial forest, about 80 kilometers (50 miles) southwest of. Boganda ein papa, Swalakpé, be village chief and rich man wey get plenty palm plantations, plus he marry many women. Boganda ein mama, Siribé, be the third wife. Around the time dem born Boganda, French people dey exploit Central Africa strong — dem dey do big-big business, especially rubber, and dem dey force people work like slaves under one system called corvée. One of the worst companies wey do this thing be Compagnie Forestière de la Haute Sangha-Oubangui (CFSO), wey dey operate for the Lobaye area. Dem force people work, beat dem, and because of that, many people get sick or die, and traditional life spoil. Boganda ein village, Bobangui, suffer this thing well-well. Even ein uncle — wey ein son Jean-Bédel Bokassa later call himself Emperor — dem beat am die for colonial police station because dem say he no wan work Boganda lose both him mama and papa when he still small. Dem talk say ein papa die shortly after he born, as colonial soldiers do punishment attack for the area. Ein mama too die before 1915 — some people talk say one CFSO soldier kill her because she no bring the amount of rubber dem want. After that, dem give Boganda to one guardian, but the man join French Army during World War I and die for the big Battle of Verdun. After that, dem give Boganda to some other family members to take care of am. For 1920, he catch smallpox. One time, dem send ein brother make he carry am go meet one uncle, but for road top, dem jam French soldiers wey one Lieutenant Mayer dey lead. Ein brother run out of fear, so Boganda lef alone. As he try talk say he be stranger or he lost, he talk 'Gboganda' — wey be Ngbaka word wey fit mean 'I be from somewhere else'. The soldiers think say that be ein name, so dem start dey call am 'Boganda', and that be the name he use for the rest of ein life. Lieutenant Mayer carry am go orphanage for one nearby town called Mbaïki. Later, one Spiritan missionary wey dey tour the area see am and carry am go mission station for Saint Jean Baptiste inside Bétou — one town wey dey further south along the Ubangi River, and e get school there For Bétou, dem teach Boganda how to read and write for Lingala. Most stories talk say he be sharp student. Then for December 1921, dem carry am go the main Spiritan mission for Saint Paul des Rapides inside Bangui — wey be the capital of Oubangui-Chari. He baptise there for late 1922, and dem give am the name Barthélemy. Later, Boganda write say, 'To be Christian mean say I free myself from the old ways of my ancestors, and become brother to all human beings.<ref name="AN">{{Cite web|title=Biographies des députés de la IV République: Barthélémy Boganda|url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/biographies/IVRepublique/boganda-barthelemy-04041910.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624081043/http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/biographies/IVRepublique/boganda-barthelemy-04041910.asp|archive-date=24 June 2008|access-date=29 February 2008|publisher=[[National Assembly of France]]|language=fr}}</ref> At Saint Paul he learned French, the catechism, and agricultural labour. By mid-1924 Boganda had completed his primary education and had indicated his desire to become a priest. In November he was sent to the Jesuit ''petit séminaire'' in Lemfu, [[Belgian Congo]]. The school's curriculum included Latin, French, mathematics, history, and philosophy and was scheduled to take six years to complete, though Boganda had left by 1928/1929.[15][d] After failing to enroll in a school in France due to lack of money, he entered the Spiritian ''petit séminaire'' in Brazzaville. He spent his final year of studies in Bangui, where he was tutored by Monsignor Marcel Grandin, the head of the Catholic Church in Oubangui-Chari.[20] Once this was completed, Grandin enrolled Boganda in the Saint Laurent ''grand séminaire'' in Mvolyé, Yaoundé, French Cameroon, in 1931. The first African student at the school, he learned history, Latin, philosophy, theology, and other subjects.[21] [[Category:1910 births]] 3fihhkqndao2l1zxd4xjhynf8tc5306 0 17413 63824 2025-06-17T10:16:37Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295259990|Wangarĩ Maathai]]" 63824 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Wangarĩ Maathai''' (/wænˈɡɑːri mɑːˈðaɪ/; 1 April 1940&nbsp;– 25 September 2011) was a Kenyan social, environmental, and political activist who dey found de Green Belt Movement,<ref name="greenbelt bio">{{Cite web|title=Biography {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524004349/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|archive-date=24 May 2018|access-date=23 May 2018|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> an environmental non-governmental organization focused on de planting of trees, environmental conservation, and de women's rights. In de year 2004 she dey became de first African woman to win de [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. As one wey benefit from Kennedy Airlift, e go school for America, e get bachelor's degree from Mount St. Scholastica College for Atchison, Kansas and master's degree from University of Pittsburgh for Pittsburgh. E go become de first woman for East and Central Africa to get Doctor of Philosophy, e get im Ph.D. from University of Nairobi for Nairobi, Kenya In de year 1984, she dey received de Right Livelihood Award for "converting the Kenyan ecological debate into mass action for de reforestation." Wangari Maathai na elected member of Kenya parliament, and from January 2003 to November 2005, e serve as assistant minister for environment and natural resources under President Mwai Kibaki. E also be Honorary Councillor for World Future Council.Maathai be scholar and author of several books, e no be just activist, e be intellectual wey make big contributions to ecological thinking, development, and gender issues, and also African cultures and faiths.[6]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Musila|first=Grace|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1148322483|title=Wangari Maathai's Registers of freedom|publisher=HSRC Press|others=Grace A. Musila|year=2020|isbn=978-0796925749|location=Cape Town|oclc=1148322483|access-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510215830/https://www.worldcat.org/title/wangari-maathais-registers-of-freedom/oclc/1148322483|archive-date=10 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> She dey pass away on 25 September 2011 because of ovarian cancer complications. == Early life and education == Maathai wey them born her on 1 April 1940 in de village of Ihithe, Nyeri District,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wangari Maathai {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=https://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023210710/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|archive-date=23 October 2019|access-date=13 April 2019|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> in de central highlands of de colony of Kenya. Im family be Kikuyu, di most populous tribe for Kenya, and dem been dey live for dat place for long time, from dem ancestors.[9] For around 1943, Maathai's family move go live for white man's farm for Rift Valley near Nakuru, where im dad find work.[10]For late 1947, e go back Ihithe with im mama, because im two brothers dey attend primary school for village, and dem no get school for farm wey im dad dey work. Im dad still dey farm.[11] After short time, wen e be 8 years, e join im brothers for Ihithe Primary School. Wen e be 11 years, Maathai move go St. Cecilia's Intermediate Primary School, boarding school wey dey Mathari Catholic Mission for Nyeri.[12] E study for St. Cecilia's for four years. For dat time, e become fluent for English and e convert to Catholicism. E also join Legion of Mary, dem dey try serve God by serving people."[13] For St. Cecilia's, e dey safe from Mau Mau fight wey dey happen, but im mama have to leave dem house go emergency village for Ihithe.[14]Wen Maathai finish school for 1956, e be number one for im class, and dem give am admission to Loreto High School for Limuru, di only Catholic high school for girls for Kenya.[15] As East Africa colonial time dey end, Kenyan politicians like Tom Mboya dey propose ways to make Western education available to smart students. John F. Kennedy, wey be US senator den, agree fund di program through im brother's foundation, and dem call am Kennedy Airlift or Airlift Africa. Maathai be one of about 300 Kenyans wey dem select go study for US for September 1960.[16] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] s91gxhvrjeq84fbywrv6xmb0yc79l1w 63826 63824 2025-06-17T10:18:38Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 i added a data box 63826 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Wangarĩ Maathai''' (/wænˈɡɑːri mɑːˈðaɪ/; 1 April 1940&nbsp;– 25 September 2011) was a Kenyan social, environmental, and political activist who dey found de Green Belt Movement,<ref name="greenbelt bio">{{Cite web|title=Biography {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524004349/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|archive-date=24 May 2018|access-date=23 May 2018|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> an environmental non-governmental organization focused on de planting of trees, environmental conservation, and de women's rights. In de year 2004 she dey became de first African woman to win de [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. As one wey benefit from Kennedy Airlift, e go school for America, e get bachelor's degree from Mount St. Scholastica College for Atchison, Kansas and master's degree from University of Pittsburgh for Pittsburgh. E go become de first woman for East and Central Africa to get Doctor of Philosophy, e get im Ph.D. from University of Nairobi for Nairobi, Kenya In de year 1984, she dey received de Right Livelihood Award for "converting the Kenyan ecological debate into mass action for de reforestation." Wangari Maathai na elected member of Kenya parliament, and from January 2003 to November 2005, e serve as assistant minister for environment and natural resources under President Mwai Kibaki. E also be Honorary Councillor for World Future Council.Maathai be scholar and author of several books, e no be just activist, e be intellectual wey make big contributions to ecological thinking, development, and gender issues, and also African cultures and faiths.[6]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Musila|first=Grace|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1148322483|title=Wangari Maathai's Registers of freedom|publisher=HSRC Press|others=Grace A. Musila|year=2020|isbn=978-0796925749|location=Cape Town|oclc=1148322483|access-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510215830/https://www.worldcat.org/title/wangari-maathais-registers-of-freedom/oclc/1148322483|archive-date=10 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> She dey pass away on 25 September 2011 because of ovarian cancer complications. == Early life and education == Maathai wey them born her on 1 April 1940 in de village of Ihithe, Nyeri District,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wangari Maathai {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=https://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023210710/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|archive-date=23 October 2019|access-date=13 April 2019|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> in de central highlands of de colony of Kenya. Im family be Kikuyu, di most populous tribe for Kenya, and dem been dey live for dat place for long time, from dem ancestors.[9] For around 1943, Maathai's family move go live for white man's farm for Rift Valley near Nakuru, where im dad find work.[10]For late 1947, e go back Ihithe with im mama, because im two brothers dey attend primary school for village, and dem no get school for farm wey im dad dey work. Im dad still dey farm.[11] After short time, wen e be 8 years, e join im brothers for Ihithe Primary School. Wen e be 11 years, Maathai move go St. Cecilia's Intermediate Primary School, boarding school wey dey Mathari Catholic Mission for Nyeri.[12] E study for St. Cecilia's for four years. For dat time, e become fluent for English and e convert to Catholicism. E also join Legion of Mary, dem dey try serve God by serving people."[13] For St. Cecilia's, e dey safe from Mau Mau fight wey dey happen, but im mama have to leave dem house go emergency village for Ihithe.[14]Wen Maathai finish school for 1956, e be number one for im class, and dem give am admission to Loreto High School for Limuru, di only Catholic high school for girls for Kenya.[15] As East Africa colonial time dey end, Kenyan politicians like Tom Mboya dey propose ways to make Western education available to smart students. John F. Kennedy, wey be US senator den, agree fund di program through im brother's foundation, and dem call am Kennedy Airlift or Airlift Africa. Maathai be one of about 300 Kenyans wey dem select go study for US for September 1960.[16] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] n7lj1ppckv4m40imqvkzyvvaw4c72x0 63828 63826 2025-06-17T10:20:54Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 63828 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Wangarĩ Maathai''' (/wænˈɡɑːri mɑːˈðaɪ/; 1 April 1940&nbsp;– 25 September 2011) was a Kenyan social, environmental, and political activist who dey found de Green Belt Movement,<ref name="greenbelt bio">{{Cite web|title=Biography {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524004349/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|archive-date=24 May 2018|access-date=23 May 2018|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> an environmental non-governmental organization focused on de planting of trees, environmental conservation, and de women's rights. In de year 2004 she dey became de first African woman to win de [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. As one wey benefit from Kennedy Airlift, e go school for America, e get bachelor's degree from Mount St. Scholastica College for Atchison, Kansas and master's degree from University of Pittsburgh for Pittsburgh. E go become de first woman for East and Central Africa to get Doctor of Philosophy, e get im Ph.D. from University of Nairobi for Nairobi, Kenya In de year 1984, she dey received de Right Livelihood Award for "converting the Kenyan ecological debate into mass action for de reforestation." Wangari Maathai na elected member of Kenya parliament, and from January 2003 to November 2005, e serve as assistant minister for environment and natural resources under President Mwai Kibaki. E also be Honorary Councillor for World Future Council.Maathai be scholar and author of several books, e no be just activist, e be intellectual wey make big contributions to ecological thinking, development, and gender issues, and also African cultures and faiths.[6]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Musila|first=Grace|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1148322483|title=Wangari Maathai's Registers of freedom|publisher=HSRC Press|others=Grace A. Musila|year=2020|isbn=978-0796925749|location=Cape Town|oclc=1148322483|access-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510215830/https://www.worldcat.org/title/wangari-maathais-registers-of-freedom/oclc/1148322483|archive-date=10 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> She dey pass away on 25 September 2011 because of ovarian cancer complications. == Early life and education == Maathai wey them born her on 1 April 1940 in de village of Ihithe, Nyeri District,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wangari Maathai {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=https://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023210710/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|archive-date=23 October 2019|access-date=13 April 2019|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> in de central highlands of de colony of Kenya. Im family be Kikuyu, di most populous tribe for Kenya, and dem been dey live for dat place for long time, from dem ancestors.[9] For around 1943, Maathai's family move go live for white man's farm for Rift Valley near Nakuru, where im dad find work.[10]For late 1947, e go back Ihithe with im mama, because im two brothers dey attend primary school for village, and dem no get school for farm wey im dad dey work. Im dad still dey farm.[11] After short time, wen e be 8 years, e join im brothers for Ihithe Primary School. Wen e be 11 years, Maathai move go St. Cecilia's Intermediate Primary School, boarding school wey dey Mathari Catholic Mission for Nyeri.[12] E study for St. Cecilia's for four years. For dat time, e become fluent for English and e convert to Catholicism. E also join Legion of Mary, dem dey try serve God by serving people."[13] For St. Cecilia's, e dey safe from Mau Mau fight wey dey happen, but im mama have to leave dem house go emergency village for Ihithe.[14]Wen Maathai finish school for 1956, e be number one for im class, and dem give am admission to Loreto High School for Limuru, di only Catholic high school for girls for Kenya.[15] As East Africa colonial time dey end, Kenyan politicians like Tom Mboya dey propose ways to make Western education available to smart students. John F. Kennedy, wey be US senator den, agree fund di program through im brother's foundation, and dem call am Kennedy Airlift or Airlift Africa. Maathai be one of about 300 Kenyans wey dem select go study for US for September 1960.[16] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] ==References== {{reflist}} ===Works cited=== * {{cite book |last1=Kinefuchi |first1=Etsuko |editor-last1=Mutua |editor-first1=Eddah M. |editor-last2=González |editor-first2=Alberto |editor-last3=Wolbert |editor-first3=Anke | chapter=Chapter Eight: Wangari Maathai and Mottainai: Gifting "Cultural Appropriation" with Cultural Empowerment |title=The Rhetorical Legacy of Wangari Maathai: Planting the Future |date=25 October 2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-7113-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sn9yDwAAQBAJ |access-date=13 October 2023 |language=en}} * {{cite book |last1=Maathai |first1=Wangari |title=Unbowed: A Memoir |date=2006 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |isbn=978-0-307-26348-3 |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ot_gq-YkT8QC |access-date=10 October 2023}} * {{Cite book|last=Muhonja|first=Besi Brillian|title=Radical utu : critical ideas and ideals of Wangari Muta Maathai|year=2020|isbn=978-0896805071 | publisher=Ohio University Press |location=Athens, Ohio|oclc=1155925037}} 7du1ipv6mc9ceat7xtjs3xi6r4z30zh 63830 63828 2025-06-17T10:38:14Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295259990|Wangarĩ Maathai]]" 63830 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Wangarĩ Maathai''' (/wænˈɡɑːri mɑːˈðaɪ/; 1 April 1940&nbsp;– 25 September 2011) was a Kenyan social, environmental, and political activist who dey found de Green Belt Movement,<ref name="greenbelt bio">{{Cite web|title=Biography {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524004349/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|archive-date=24 May 2018|access-date=23 May 2018|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> an environmental non-governmental organization focused on de planting of trees, environmental conservation, and de women's rights. In de year 2004 she dey became de first African woman to win de [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. As one wey benefit from Kennedy Airlift, e go school for America, e get bachelor's degree from Mount St. Scholastica College for Atchison, Kansas and master's degree from University of Pittsburgh for Pittsburgh. E go become de first woman for East and Central Africa to get Doctor of Philosophy, e get im Ph.D. from University of Nairobi for Nairobi, Kenya In de year 1984, she dey received de Right Livelihood Award for "converting the Kenyan ecological debate into mass action for de reforestation." Wangari Maathai na elected member of Kenya parliament, and from January 2003 to November 2005, e serve as assistant minister for environment and natural resources under President Mwai Kibaki. E also be Honorary Councillor for World Future Council.Maathai be scholar and author of several books, e no be just activist, e be intellectual wey make big contributions to ecological thinking, development, and gender issues, and also African cultures and faiths.[6]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Musila|first=Grace|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1148322483|title=Wangari Maathai's Registers of freedom|publisher=HSRC Press|others=Grace A. Musila|year=2020|isbn=978-0796925749|location=Cape Town|oclc=1148322483|access-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510215830/https://www.worldcat.org/title/wangari-maathais-registers-of-freedom/oclc/1148322483|archive-date=10 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> She dey pass away on 25 September 2011 because of ovarian cancer complications. == Early life and education == Maathai wey them born her on 1 April 1940 in de village of Ihithe, Nyeri District,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wangari Maathai {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=https://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023210710/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|archive-date=23 October 2019|access-date=13 April 2019|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> in de central highlands of de colony of Kenya. Im family be Kikuyu, di most populous tribe for Kenya, and dem been dey live for dat place for long time, from dem ancestors.[9] For around 1943, Maathai's family move go live for white man's farm for Rift Valley near Nakuru, where im dad find work.[10]For late 1947, e go back Ihithe with im mama, because im two brothers dey attend primary school for village, and dem no get school for farm wey im dad dey work. Im dad still dey farm.[11] After short time, wen e be 8 years, e join im brothers for Ihithe Primary School. Wen e be 11 years, Maathai move go St. Cecilia's Intermediate Primary School, boarding school wey dey Mathari Catholic Mission for Nyeri.[12] E study for St. Cecilia's for four years. For dat time, e become fluent for English and e convert to Catholicism. E also join Legion of Mary, dem dey try serve God by serving people."[13] For St. Cecilia's, e dey safe from Mau Mau fight wey dey happen, but im mama have to leave dem house go emergency village for Ihithe.[14]Wen Maathai finish school for 1956, e be number one for im class, and dem give am admission to Loreto High School for Limuru, di only Catholic high school for girls for Kenya.[15] As East Africa colonial time dey end, Kenyan politicians like Tom Mboya dey propose ways to make Western education available to smart students. John F. Kennedy, wey be US senator den, agree fund di program through im brother's foundation, and dem call am Kennedy Airlift or Airlift Africa. Maathai be one of about 300 Kenyans wey dem select go study for US for September 1960.[16] E get scholarship go study for Mount St. Scholastica College (now Benedictine College), for Atchison, Kansas, e study biology, and e take chemistry and German as im minor.[17] After e get Bachelor of Science degree for 1964, e go University of Pittsburgh study for master's degree in biology. Africa-America Institute fund im graduate studies,[18]Wen e dey Pittsburgh, e experience environmental restoration first time, as local people dey fight to clean city air from pollution.[19]For January 1966, Maathai get im MSc degree for biological science Dem appoint am as research assistant to professor of zoology for University College of Nairobi, Nairobi.[21] Wen e come back Kenya, e stop using dat name, e prefer dem call am Wangari Muta, im birth name.[22] Wen e go university start work, dem tell am say dem don give di job to another person. E think na because of im gender and tribe dem do am.[23]After e search job for two months, Professor Reinhold Hofmann from University of Giessen, Giessen, offer am job as research assistant for microanatomy section, wey be part of new Department of Veterinary Anatomy, School of Veterinary Medicine, University College of Nairob.[24] For April 1966, e meet Mwangi Mathai, another Kenyan wey study for America, and dem later marry.[25]E also rent small shop for city, open general store, and im sisters dey work dey. For 1967, Professor Hofmann encourage am to go University of Giessen, Germany, go get doctorate. E study for Giessen and University of Munich. For 1969 spring, e come back Nairobi, continue im studies for University College of Nairobi as assistant lecturer. For May, e and Mwangi Mathai marry[26] Later dat year, e dey pregnant with im first pikin, and im husband dey campaign for Parliament seat, but e lose by small margin. During dat election time, Tom Mboya, wey help send am abroad, dem kill am. After dat, President Kenyatta stop multi-party democracy for Kenya. Short time after, e give birth to im first son, Waweru.[27]For 1971, e become first Eastern African woman wey get PhD, im doctorate na veterinary anatomy, Maathai get PhD from University College of Nairobi, wey later become University of Nairobi. Im dissertation be on development and differentiation of gonads for bovines.[28] Im daughter, Wanjira, born for December 1987. [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] i5nruw0449uof7p7ms1vns3v62xw42i 63834 63830 2025-06-17T11:16:34Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295259990|Wangarĩ Maathai]]" 63834 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Wangarĩ Maathai''' (/wænˈɡɑːri mɑːˈðaɪ/; 1 April 1940&nbsp;– 25 September 2011) was a Kenyan social, environmental, and political activist who dey found de Green Belt Movement,<ref name="greenbelt bio">{{Cite web|title=Biography {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524004349/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|archive-date=24 May 2018|access-date=23 May 2018|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> an environmental non-governmental organization focused on de planting of trees, environmental conservation, and de women's rights. In de year 2004 she dey became de first African woman to win de [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. As one wey benefit from Kennedy Airlift, e go school for America, e get bachelor's degree from Mount St. Scholastica College for Atchison, Kansas and master's degree from University of Pittsburgh for Pittsburgh. E go become de first woman for East and Central Africa to get Doctor of Philosophy, e get im Ph.D. from University of Nairobi for Nairobi, Kenya In de year 1984, she dey received de Right Livelihood Award for "converting the Kenyan ecological debate into mass action for de reforestation." Wangari Maathai na elected member of Kenya parliament, and from January 2003 to November 2005, e serve as assistant minister for environment and natural resources under President Mwai Kibaki. E also be Honorary Councillor for World Future Council.Maathai be scholar and author of several books, e no be just activist, e be intellectual wey make big contributions to ecological thinking, development, and gender issues, and also African cultures and faiths.[6]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Musila|first=Grace|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1148322483|title=Wangari Maathai's Registers of freedom|publisher=HSRC Press|others=Grace A. Musila|year=2020|isbn=978-0796925749|location=Cape Town|oclc=1148322483|access-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510215830/https://www.worldcat.org/title/wangari-maathais-registers-of-freedom/oclc/1148322483|archive-date=10 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> She dey pass away on 25 September 2011 because of ovarian cancer complications. == Early life and education == Maathai wey them born her on 1 April 1940 in de village of Ihithe, Nyeri District,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wangari Maathai {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=https://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023210710/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|archive-date=23 October 2019|access-date=13 April 2019|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> in de central highlands of de colony of Kenya. Im family be Kikuyu, di most populous tribe for Kenya, and dem been dey live for dat place for long time, from dem ancestors.[9] For around 1943, Maathai's family move go live for white man's farm for Rift Valley near Nakuru, where im dad find work.[10]For late 1947, e go back Ihithe with im mama, because im two brothers dey attend primary school for village, and dem no get school for farm wey im dad dey work. Im dad still dey farm.[11] After short time, wen e be 8 years, e join im brothers for Ihithe Primary School. Wen e be 11 years, Maathai move go St. Cecilia's Intermediate Primary School, boarding school wey dey Mathari Catholic Mission for Nyeri.[12] E study for St. Cecilia's for four years. For dat time, e become fluent for English and e convert to Catholicism. E also join Legion of Mary, dem dey try serve God by serving people."[13] For St. Cecilia's, e dey safe from Mau Mau fight wey dey happen, but im mama have to leave dem house go emergency village for Ihithe.[14]Wen Maathai finish school for 1956, e be number one for im class, and dem give am admission to Loreto High School for Limuru, di only Catholic high school for girls for Kenya.[15] As East Africa colonial time dey end, Kenyan politicians like Tom Mboya dey propose ways to make Western education available to smart students. John F. Kennedy, wey be US senator den, agree fund di program through im brother's foundation, and dem call am Kennedy Airlift or Airlift Africa. Maathai be one of about 300 Kenyans wey dem select go study for US for September 1960.[16] E get scholarship go study for Mount St. Scholastica College (now Benedictine College), for Atchison, Kansas, e study biology, and e take chemistry and German as im minor.[17] After e get Bachelor of Science degree for 1964, e go University of Pittsburgh study for master's degree in biology. Africa-America Institute fund im graduate studies,[18]Wen e dey Pittsburgh, e experience environmental restoration first time, as local people dey fight to clean city air from pollution.[19]For January 1966, Maathai get im MSc degree for biological science Dem appoint am as research assistant to professor of zoology for University College of Nairobi, Nairobi.[21] Wen e come back Kenya, e stop using dat name, e prefer dem call am Wangari Muta, im birth name.[22] Wen e go university start work, dem tell am say dem don give di job to another person. E think na because of im gender and tribe dem do am.[23]After e search job for two months, Professor Reinhold Hofmann from University of Giessen, Giessen, offer am job as research assistant for microanatomy section, wey be part of new Department of Veterinary Anatomy, School of Veterinary Medicine, University College of Nairob.[24] For April 1966, e meet Mwangi Mathai, another Kenyan wey study for America, and dem later marry.[25]E also rent small shop for city, open general store, and im sisters dey work dey. For 1967, Professor Hofmann encourage am to go University of Giessen, Germany, go get doctorate. E study for Giessen and University of Munich. For 1969 spring, e come back Nairobi, continue im studies for University College of Nairobi as assistant lecturer. For May, e and Mwangi Mathai marry[26] Later dat year, e dey pregnant with im first pikin, and im husband dey campaign for Parliament seat, but e lose by small margin. During dat election time, Tom Mboya, wey help send am abroad, dem kill am. After dat, President Kenyatta stop multi-party democracy for Kenya. Short time after, e give birth to im first son, Waweru.[27]For 1971, e become first Eastern African woman wey get PhD, im doctorate na veterinary anatomy, Maathai get PhD from University College of Nairobi, wey later become University of Nairobi. Im dissertation be on development and differentiation of gonads for bovines.[28] Im daughter, Wanjira, born for December 1987. For late 1980s, Kenyan government start dey against Maathai and Green Belt Movement. Dey no like say dem dey fight for democratic rights. Government use old law wey dey say groups of more than nine people no fit meet without license. For 1988, Green Belt Movement dey do pro-democracy things like registering voters for election and demanding constitutional reform and freedom to express demsef. But government cheat for election to stay in power, according to Maathai.[48] For October 1989, Maathai hear about plan build 60-storey Kenya Times Media Trust Complex for Uhuru Park. Di complex go house KANU HQ, Kenya Times newspaper, offices, auditorium, galleries, shopping malls and 2,000 car park. Dem plan big statue of President Daniel Arap Moi too. Maathai no like am, so e write protest letters to Kenya Times, President's office, Nairobi city commission and UNEP among others., de executive director of de [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO),Maathai also write letters to Ministry of Public Works and Permanent Secretary for International Security. E even reach out to Sir John Johnson, British High Commissioner, ask am to talk to Robert Maxwell, big investor for di project. E compare build tower for Uhuru Park to build am for Hyde Park or Central Park, say na no go fit tolerate am.[49] Government no respond to im inquiries and protests, instead dem respond through media say Maathai na crazy woman; say denying project for Uhuru Park go take more than small portion of public park land; and dem declare project as fine and magnificent work of architecture wey only ignorant few oppose. For November 8, 1989, Parliament express outrage at Maathai's actions, complain say e write letters to foreign organisations and dem call Green Belt Movement bogus organisation and dem members bunch of divorcees, and dem suggest say if Maathai fit write to Europeans so well, maybe e should go live for Europe.[50] "Despite Maathai's protests and many people protesting for city, dem start build di complex for Uhuru Park on November 15, 1989. Maathai go court ask dem stop construction, but dem no accept on December 11. President Moi talk say people wey no like di project get "insects for dem head". On December 12, President Moi talk say for Uhuru Park, say Maathai should be proper African woman, respect men and keep quiet.[51] Government force Maathai vacate office, Green Belt Movement relocate to im home. Dem audit di organisation, seemingly to shut am down. However, im protests and media attention lead to foreign investors pulling out, and di project get cancelled for January 199[53] For January 1992, Maathai and other pro-democracy activists discover say dem get list of people wey government target for assassination and say government-sponsored coup possible, and Maathai's name dey on di list. Di pro-democracy group, Forum for Restoration of Democracy, present dem information to media, calling for general election. Later that day, Maathai receive warning say one of dem members don arrest, so e decide barricade imself for im home. Shortly after, police arrive surround di house, and she stay dey for three days. Police eventually cut through di bars wey she install for windows, enter di house, and arrest am. Dem charge am and other pro-democracy activists wey dem arrest with spreading malicious rumors, sedition, and treason. After day and half for jail, dem bring dem go hearing and release dem on bail. Many international organisations and eight senators, including Al Gore and Edward M. Kennedy, pressure Kenyan government make dem prove charges against pro-democracy activists or risk damage relations with United States. Eventually, for November 1992, Kenyan government drop charges.[54] On February 28, 1992, while dem release am on bail, Maathai and others go on hunger strike for one corner of Uhuru Park, wey dem call Freedom Corner, to pressure government release political prisoners. After four days, on March 3, 1992, police forcefully remove di protesters. Police knock Maathai and three others unconscious, and dem take dem go hospital. President Daniel arap Moi call am "mad woman" and say e be "threat to order and security of di country. Di attack get international criticism. US State Department say dem "deeply concerned" by di violence and di forcible removal of di hunger strikers. When dem no release di prisoners, di protesters - mostly mothers of those for prison - move dem protest to All Saints Cathedral, di seat of Anglican Archbishop for Kenya, across from Uhuru Park. Di protest continue dey, with Maathai contributing frequently, till early 1993 when dem finally release di prisoners.[58] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] pacqe37jacffwhim4hi312gk4brsg8k 63835 63834 2025-06-17T11:23:56Z Abdul Rahman Abdul Kudus 3146 i added a data box 63835 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Wangarĩ Maathai''' (/wænˈɡɑːri mɑːˈðaɪ/; 1 April 1940&nbsp;– 25 September 2011) was a Kenyan social, environmental, and political activist who dey found de Green Belt Movement,<ref name="greenbelt bio">{{Cite web|title=Biography {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524004349/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai/biography|archive-date=24 May 2018|access-date=23 May 2018|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> an environmental non-governmental organization focused on de planting of trees, environmental conservation, and de women's rights. In de year 2004 she dey became de first African woman to win de [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. As one wey benefit from Kennedy Airlift, e go school for America, e get bachelor's degree from Mount St. Scholastica College for Atchison, Kansas and master's degree from University of Pittsburgh for Pittsburgh. E go become de first woman for East and Central Africa to get Doctor of Philosophy, e get im Ph.D. from University of Nairobi for Nairobi, Kenya In de year 1984, she dey received de Right Livelihood Award for "converting the Kenyan ecological debate into mass action for de reforestation." Wangari Maathai na elected member of Kenya parliament, and from January 2003 to November 2005, e serve as assistant minister for environment and natural resources under President Mwai Kibaki. E also be Honorary Councillor for World Future Council.Maathai be scholar and author of several books, e no be just activist, e be intellectual wey make big contributions to ecological thinking, development, and gender issues, and also African cultures and faiths.[6]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Musila|first=Grace|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1148322483|title=Wangari Maathai's Registers of freedom|publisher=HSRC Press|others=Grace A. Musila|year=2020|isbn=978-0796925749|location=Cape Town|oclc=1148322483|access-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510215830/https://www.worldcat.org/title/wangari-maathais-registers-of-freedom/oclc/1148322483|archive-date=10 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> She dey pass away on 25 September 2011 because of ovarian cancer complications. == Early life and education == Maathai wey them born her on 1 April 1940 in de village of Ihithe, Nyeri District,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wangari Maathai {{!}} The Green Belt Movement|url=https://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023210710/http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/wangari-maathai|archive-date=23 October 2019|access-date=13 April 2019|website=www.greenbeltmovement.org|language=en}}</ref> in de central highlands of de colony of Kenya. Im family be Kikuyu, di most populous tribe for Kenya, and dem been dey live for dat place for long time, from dem ancestors.[9] For around 1943, Maathai's family move go live for white man's farm for Rift Valley near Nakuru, where im dad find work.[10]For late 1947, e go back Ihithe with im mama, because im two brothers dey attend primary school for village, and dem no get school for farm wey im dad dey work. Im dad still dey farm.[11] After short time, wen e be 8 years, e join im brothers for Ihithe Primary School. Wen e be 11 years, Maathai move go St. Cecilia's Intermediate Primary School, boarding school wey dey Mathari Catholic Mission for Nyeri.[12] E study for St. Cecilia's for four years. For dat time, e become fluent for English and e convert to Catholicism. E also join Legion of Mary, dem dey try serve God by serving people."[13] For St. Cecilia's, e dey safe from Mau Mau fight wey dey happen, but im mama have to leave dem house go emergency village for Ihithe.[14]Wen Maathai finish school for 1956, e be number one for im class, and dem give am admission to Loreto High School for Limuru, di only Catholic high school for girls for Kenya.[15] As East Africa colonial time dey end, Kenyan politicians like Tom Mboya dey propose ways to make Western education available to smart students. John F. Kennedy, wey be US senator den, agree fund di program through im brother's foundation, and dem call am Kennedy Airlift or Airlift Africa. Maathai be one of about 300 Kenyans wey dem select go study for US for September 1960.[16] E get scholarship go study for Mount St. Scholastica College (now Benedictine College), for Atchison, Kansas, e study biology, and e take chemistry and German as im minor.[17] After e get Bachelor of Science degree for 1964, e go University of Pittsburgh study for master's degree in biology. Africa-America Institute fund im graduate studies,[18]Wen e dey Pittsburgh, e experience environmental restoration first time, as local people dey fight to clean city air from pollution.[19]For January 1966, Maathai get im MSc degree for biological science Dem appoint am as research assistant to professor of zoology for University College of Nairobi, Nairobi.[21] Wen e come back Kenya, e stop using dat name, e prefer dem call am Wangari Muta, im birth name.[22] Wen e go university start work, dem tell am say dem don give di job to another person. E think na because of im gender and tribe dem do am.[23]After e search job for two months, Professor Reinhold Hofmann from University of Giessen, Giessen, offer am job as research assistant for microanatomy section, wey be part of new Department of Veterinary Anatomy, School of Veterinary Medicine, University College of Nairob.[24] For April 1966, e meet Mwangi Mathai, another Kenyan wey study for America, and dem later marry.[25]E also rent small shop for city, open general store, and im sisters dey work dey. For 1967, Professor Hofmann encourage am to go University of Giessen, Germany, go get doctorate. E study for Giessen and University of Munich. For 1969 spring, e come back Nairobi, continue im studies for University College of Nairobi as assistant lecturer. For May, e and Mwangi Mathai marry[26] Later dat year, e dey pregnant with im first pikin, and im husband dey campaign for Parliament seat, but e lose by small margin. During dat election time, Tom Mboya, wey help send am abroad, dem kill am. After dat, President Kenyatta stop multi-party democracy for Kenya. Short time after, e give birth to im first son, Waweru.[27]For 1971, e become first Eastern African woman wey get PhD, im doctorate na veterinary anatomy, Maathai get PhD from University College of Nairobi, wey later become University of Nairobi. Im dissertation be on development and differentiation of gonads for bovines.[28] Im daughter, Wanjira, born for December 1987. For late 1980s, Kenyan government start dey against Maathai and Green Belt Movement. Dey no like say dem dey fight for democratic rights. Government use old law wey dey say groups of more than nine people no fit meet without license. For 1988, Green Belt Movement dey do pro-democracy things like registering voters for election and demanding constitutional reform and freedom to express demsef. But government cheat for election to stay in power, according to Maathai.[48] For October 1989, Maathai hear about plan build 60-storey Kenya Times Media Trust Complex for Uhuru Park. Di complex go house KANU HQ, Kenya Times newspaper, offices, auditorium, galleries, shopping malls and 2,000 car park. Dem plan big statue of President Daniel Arap Moi too. Maathai no like am, so e write protest letters to Kenya Times, President's office, Nairobi city commission and UNEP among others., de executive director of de [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO),Maathai also write letters to Ministry of Public Works and Permanent Secretary for International Security. E even reach out to Sir John Johnson, British High Commissioner, ask am to talk to Robert Maxwell, big investor for di project. E compare build tower for Uhuru Park to build am for Hyde Park or Central Park, say na no go fit tolerate am.[49] Government no respond to im inquiries and protests, instead dem respond through media say Maathai na crazy woman; say denying project for Uhuru Park go take more than small portion of public park land; and dem declare project as fine and magnificent work of architecture wey only ignorant few oppose. For November 8, 1989, Parliament express outrage at Maathai's actions, complain say e write letters to foreign organisations and dem call Green Belt Movement bogus organisation and dem members bunch of divorcees, and dem suggest say if Maathai fit write to Europeans so well, maybe e should go live for Europe.[50] "Despite Maathai's protests and many people protesting for city, dem start build di complex for Uhuru Park on November 15, 1989. Maathai go court ask dem stop construction, but dem no accept on December 11. President Moi talk say people wey no like di project get "insects for dem head". On December 12, President Moi talk say for Uhuru Park, say Maathai should be proper African woman, respect men and keep quiet.[51] Government force Maathai vacate office, Green Belt Movement relocate to im home. Dem audit di organisation, seemingly to shut am down. However, im protests and media attention lead to foreign investors pulling out, and di project get cancelled for January 199[53] For January 1992, Maathai and other pro-democracy activists discover say dem get list of people wey government target for assassination and say government-sponsored coup possible, and Maathai's name dey on di list. Di pro-democracy group, Forum for Restoration of Democracy, present dem information to media, calling for general election. Later that day, Maathai receive warning say one of dem members don arrest, so e decide barricade imself for im home. Shortly after, police arrive surround di house, and she stay dey for three days. Police eventually cut through di bars wey she install for windows, enter di house, and arrest am. Dem charge am and other pro-democracy activists wey dem arrest with spreading malicious rumors, sedition, and treason. After day and half for jail, dem bring dem go hearing and release dem on bail. Many international organisations and eight senators, including Al Gore and Edward M. Kennedy, pressure Kenyan government make dem prove charges against pro-democracy activists or risk damage relations with United States. Eventually, for November 1992, Kenyan government drop charges.[54] On February 28, 1992, while dem release am on bail, Maathai and others go on hunger strike for one corner of Uhuru Park, wey dem call Freedom Corner, to pressure government release political prisoners. After four days, on March 3, 1992, police forcefully remove di protesters. Police knock Maathai and three others unconscious, and dem take dem go hospital. President Daniel arap Moi call am "mad woman" and say e be "threat to order and security of di country. Di attack get international criticism. US State Department say dem "deeply concerned" by di violence and di forcible removal of di hunger strikers. When dem no release di prisoners, di protesters - mostly mothers of those for prison - move dem protest to All Saints Cathedral, di seat of Anglican Archbishop for Kenya, across from Uhuru Park. Di protest continue dey, with Maathai contributing frequently, till early 1993 when dem finally release di prisoners.[58] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] cppbfw34xro338pp31y8tom8w2qqyz6